History of the Church (1st-5th Century) - Full-length Documentary | Church History

What is church history? Where do I find resources on church history? Why would I study history to begin with? These are all valid questions that many of us have. This series aims to answer these questions. Before we delve into historical events of church development, I want to shed light on the benefits we can learn from church history. Church history is the study of past events, councils, and affairs pertaining to the church. We learn about historical events from multiple resources. For example, we learn about the birth of the early church from the Book of Acts.

We can learn about the persecuted church from Roman records, the writings of historians such as Josephus, and the writings of the early church fathers such as Ignatius of Antioch. We can learn about the liturgical life of the church from individuals such as Justin the Martyr. We can learn about the expansion of the church during the time of the apostles and beyond their times from Irenaeus of Lyons's "Against the Heresies" or the ecclesial history of the church by Eusebius. We can learn about the councils of the church from their written minutes or the writings of the

fathers who participated in these councils, such as Gregory the Theologian, who wrote about his experience at the Council of Constantinople in 381. Many other resources can be found to explore church history, but I will stop listing them as you will see them throughout the episodes of this series. The question of why study church history might still be going through your mind. The study of church history gives you an idea of how the church handled her affairs throughout the centuries. There are things you can learn to emulate in the event, and there are things you can

learn to avoid. For example, you can learn to imitate Paul and Barnabas, who, despite having a conflict, did not quit service but rather continued on their separate routes and brought the gospel to different locations. You can learn to avoid mingling the church with the political world when you read about the Council of Chalcedon, where the fight for power put on a theological mask and left the church in schism. The list goes on. Studying history can help you identify the cultural elements versus the dogmatic elements of your expression of orthodoxy. For instance, the fathers of the

church were able to utilize the language of their culture to formulate doctrines such as that of the Trinity, Christology, or Soteriology. In doing so, they were able to use the culture of the time without conforming to the evils associated with paganism. This can be a lesson in how we deal with our own culture, whether it's Western or Eastern. Gregory of Nyssa, in his book "Life of Moses," where he was likely influenced by Origen of Alexandria, tells his readers that the Israelites plundered the Egyptians, and as much as they took gold and silver from them to

use it later on for the building of God's tabernacle, likewise, Christians can use secular philosophical language to formulate their orthodox theology. That being said, in studying how the fathers spoke the language of their time to spread and simplify the message of the gospel, we might be able to further spread the gospel using the very same strategy. Let us turn to historical events pertaining to church development. In the early centuries of Christianity, the church was born on the Day of Pentecost, a Jewish feast marking the gathering of the harvest into barns. The church's Pentecost marked her

sharing in her faith, which was harvested throughout the time Jesus walked on earth with everyone in the world. On the Day of Pentecost, the Holy Spirit came upon the disciples, as prophesied by Joel in Joel chapter 2, verse 28, and as promised by Christ in John chapter 14, verse 26. The Spirit came in the form of divided tongues of fire, which rested upon the heads of those who were gathered in the upper room, and they began speaking in tongues. Simultaneously, there was a sound of great wind happening outside. When the disciples left the room speaking

in tongues, the masses, who witnessed the wind and saw them speak in tongues, were astonished and began speculating what was happening. To end their speculations, Peter gave the masses a summary of the gospel. The sermon captivated the hearts of three thousand men, who became the first batch of believers joining the Kingdom of God on earth—the church. The disciples continued to preach in Jerusalem predominantly, but some began to move around to preach the good news to the Gentiles. Those in Jerusalem experienced early persecution from the Jewish high priests. Stephen was the first martyr, followed by James,

who was pushed off a building. Peter was imprisoned, but God sent an angel to free him prior to the day of his execution. This did not stop the disciples from preaching the good news. When persecution was stirred, some began moving to Antioch and Damascus. Antioch was the place where the followers of Jesus were called Christians. Leading the Jewish persecution of Christians was a man named Saul of Tarsus, or Paul of Tarsus. He was a committed Pharisee from the tribe of Benjamin who found Christianity to be a Jewish heresy that ought to be eliminated. After persecuting

Christians in Jerusalem to the point where they fled to Antioch, he requested that the Jewish authorities grant him permission to continue eliminating the followers of Jesus beyond Israel. His wish was granted, and he began his travel with a number of helpers to Damascus. On the way, he was surrounded by light and had a mystical experience where he saw Jesus Christ. After a short dialogue with the resurrected Christ, Paul lost his eyesight and was not eating or drinking for three days. When he was ready to become Christian, Christ appeared to Ananias and commanded him to heal

Paul and baptize him. With some hesitation, Ananias conceded, and Paul became a preacher of the gospel he once persecuted. There are two accounts of the events following the conversion of Paul: one is recorded by his companion Luke in the Book of Acts, and another is recorded by Paul himself in the Epistle to the Galatians. Both accounts emphasize and omit different events according to Acts. Paul begins preaching to Jews around him in the synagogues. Understandably, he is met with doubts about his loyalty to the gospel. Then Paul leaves the city in secret and heads to Jerusalem

to meet the disciples. According to the account in Galatians, Paul goes to Arabia first on a retreat with God, then to Damascus. Three years later, Paul would see Cephas and James, only returning to the original circle of disciples. Peter had an encounter with an Italian centurion named Cornelius after a vision where Peter is commanded by God not to call anything or anyone He made unclean. Peter sees Cornelius and preaches to him the gospel. Upon Cornelius's acceptance of the gospel, Peter baptizes him and all his household. Peter would then become ever convinced that the Gentiles have

a place in the church. Peter then moves to Antioch, while Paul begins traveling with his companion Barnabas to preach the good news to both Jews and Gentiles. Unfortunately, the first dispute begins when zealous Jews insisted that Gentiles ought to become Jewish first through circumcision and keeping of the Sabbath, and only then can they become Christians. This brings the first missionary trip to a halt as Paul and Barnabas return to the apostles, and the first council in church history begins in Jerusalem. There, the disciples unanimously and under the guidance of the Spirit decreed that Gentiles ought

not to keep the customs of the Jews but rather abstain from blood, animals that are strangled, and sexual immorality. Paul and Barnabas then resumed their journey, but this time with John Mark, Barnabas's nephew. According to tradition, during the journey, John Mark abandons Paul and Barnabas. As the second journey would begin, Paul and Barnabas got into an argument over whether Mark should join or not. They separate paths, and Paul takes Silas with him, while Barnabas takes Mark. Paul later went on a third missionary journey with Luke and Silas, which is recorded in great detail in the

Book of Acts. The first journey of Paul was approximately two thousand kilometers, and the second and third journeys both involved over four thousand kilometers. Traveling was largely done on foot. The last details we hear about Paul come from Acts, where he is under house arrest in Rome, preaching the gospel. Historians are divided as to what happens afterward. Some suggest that he was freed and that he went as far as Spain, then was arrested once more and executed. Others believe that he was eventually put on trial and executed after the house arrest. During the first century,

many of those who had seen and heard Christ began to pass away. In fear of losing the memory of Jesus, the apostles began writing what Justin the Martyr calls the memoirs of the apostles. These came later to be known as the four accounts of the gospel, known to us as Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The last of those accounts might have been written with the dawn of the second century. As the disciples would preach the gospel and then move to the next country they were about to preach in, they would send letters to reach out

to those who had already believed, confirming them in the faith and advising them to walk worthy of the calling by which they were called. These letters were immediately seen as authoritative by those who received them; however, no one would see them as a canon of scripture until the end of the second century and the beginning of the third century, when we would see the first list of books of the New Testament. Other edifying writings were composed, such as the Shepherd of Hermas. Local churches had different ideas of what books were authoritative and what books were

not. For example, the Second Epistle of Peter, James, and Jude were seen by some as authoritative, while others saw them as simply letters or even disputed letters. The major sees of Christianity began forming throughout the first century. Eusebius and Irenaeus of Lyon give us a record of how Peter and Paul together established the Church of Rome, which emerged as a number of bishoprics that came later to be united under one bishop. With the preaching of Mark, considered a disciple of Peter by Irenaeus, the Church of Alexandria was established. Mark would write a gospel around the

year 60 A.D. and compose a liturgy, which was later edited by the Alexandrian pillar of faith, Cyril of Alexandria, in the 5th century. Paul and Andrew would preach in Greece and what would later become the Church of Constantinople. It is believed that one of the churches there was presided over by Onesimus, the slave Paul freed through his plea with his master Philemon, in a letter which would later become part of the New Testament. Antioch, as mentioned earlier, had Peter, Paul, and Barnabas play a role in its establishment. The Church of Antioch would bring forth a

bishop named Ignatius of Antioch, who would compose a number of letters that would tell us plenty about the ecclesial life in the second century of Christianity. It is difficult to pinpoint historical events during the second and third centuries. These two centuries mark various processes of ecclesial development, such as ecclesial hierarchy, annihilation of Gnosticism, canonization of scripture, determining the date of Easter, etc. Let's begin with ecclesial hierarchy. Church unity meant to many early Christian thinkers that the believers gathered around one bishop, celebrating the one Eucharist, with a choir of presbyters and deacons assisting him. The title

bishop encompassed other roles and titles that were confirmed as ranks in the church in subsequent centuries, such as metropolitans, or the bishop of a mother city or a capital, hoary episcopus, or a bishop in charge of a village. The role of the hoary episcopus later becomes that of an auxiliary bishop who works in conjunction with a metropolitan. Patriarchs are the heads of major sees such as Alexandria or Antioch, while archbishops, who were similar to patriarchs, were not in charge of a major see; they usually had more than one bishop report to them. The title presbyter

encompassed priests as we know them now, but also hieromonks, a monk who is also a priest, and archpriests, archimandrites, or the head of a large community. Monastery, or group of monasteries, and hegemons, who was an elder priest, typically a monk in the past, who would take precedence among other priests or monks, especially with regard to administrative matters. The title deacon included deacons, archdeacons, and proto-deacons, who had precedence when serving with other deacons. Developing these roles certainly took much longer than the second and third centuries; however, the beginning of such development begins then, as we see

in the writings of Saint Ignatius of Antioch, who writes in his letters: “You must follow the lead of the bishop as Jesus Christ followed that of the Father; follow the presbyter as you would the apostles; reverence the deacons as you would God's commandment. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be; even as wheresoever Christ Jesus is, there is the Catholic Church.” The clear difference we see here between bishops and presbyters was not present in the first century, where often the two titles were used interchangeably. Gnosticism emerged as a mixture of Platonic thought with Greek,

Egyptian, and Mesopotamian mythology, along with the Christian doctrine. They believed in a good god and in an evil god, the latter of whom created the material world. In order to be saved, you had to have the special knowledge, the gnosis, that is free from all that is material. Christ was sent as the logos of the good god to free us from the material world created by the evil god, who was often associated with the god of the Old Testament. Among the prominent figures of Gnosticism was a man named Marcion. Marcion created an edited version of

the Gospel of Luke and the episodes of Paul, where nothing about the material world appears. Marcion, together with other figures before him, such as Valentinus, were vehemently opposed by the church through figures like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus of Lyon. In Irenaeus of Lyon's opposition to Marcion, the former realized the necessity of forming a list of the books the church considers as canonical scriptures. There are various lists that circulated during the second and third centuries, which attempted to compile the books accepted as authoritative texts within the New Testament. Irenaeus of Lyon makes a formal mention

of the four Gospels and alludes to other books of the New Testament. Others, like Eusebius of Caesarea and Athanasius of Alexandria, give a formal list on which books should be included as authoritative or authentic New Testament books. Irenaeus composed his list in his masterpiece "Against the Heresies," in which he commented on Gnosticism. Irenaeus was among the first Christian thinkers to associate the four accounts of the Gospel with the four incorporeal beasts carrying the throne of God in the Book of Revelation. Irenaeus writes: “The Gospels could not possibly be either more or less in number than

they are, since there are four zones of the world in which we live and four principal winds; while the church has spread over all the earth, and the pillar and foundation of the church is the Gospel and the Spirit of life, it fittingly has four pillars, everywhere breathing out in corruption and revivifying men. From this it is clear that the Word, the artificer of all things being manifested to men, gave us the Gospel fourfold in form but held together by one Spirit.” As David said when asking for his coming: “O sitter upon the cherubim, show

yourself,” for the cherubim have four faces, and their faces are images of the activity of the Son of God. For the first living creature, it says, was like a lion, signifying his active and princely and royal character. The second was like an ox, showing his sacrificial and priestly order. The third had the face of a man, indicating very clearly his coming in human guise. The fourth was like a flying eagle, making plain the giving of the Spirit who broods over the church. Now the Gospels, in which Christ is enthroned, are like these. Eusebius provides a

commentary in his famous book "On Church History" on the New Testament's writings that are accepted or rejected in different Christian communities. He also includes a list of writings that were considered debatable. As Eusebius puts it, “It is proper to sum up the writings of the New Testament which have been already mentioned. First, then, must be put the holy quaternion of the Gospels; following them, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of Paul, the Epistle of John, the Epistle of Peter. After them is to be placed, if it really seemed proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning

which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time.” These, then, belong among the accepted writings. Among the disputed writings, or anti-legomena, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called Epistle of James and that of Jude; also the second Epistle of Peter and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the Evangelist or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter. In addition to these, the extant Epistle

of Barnabas and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seemed proper, which some, as I said, reject but which others class with the accepted books. You certainly can see how some writings, such as the Apocalypse of John, were seen differently by different communities. The Catholic Epistles were debated since the times of Eusebius, who lived between 236 to 339 A.D. Syriac copies of the New Testament did not include the Catholic Epistles until much later. Prominent figures such as Ephraim the Syrian and John Chrysostom used Bibles that

only included the Pauline literature, including Hebrews, without the Catholic Epistles. Hebrews was another debated book, as its authorship was attributed to different people from the first century, such as Paul or Apollos, who was an unknown disciple of either Paul or Barnabas. Athanasius of Alexandria, in his 39th festival letter, also mentions the books of the New Testament that are considered canonical. Athanasius's list resembles the canon of the New Testament we see in Scripture today. He says again, “It is not tedious to speak of the books of the New Testament.” Are the four Gospels according to Matthew,

Mark, Luke, and John? Afterwards, the Acts of the Apostles and episodes called Catholic: seven, this of James, one of Peter, two of John, three; after these, one of Jude. In addition, there are 14 episodes of Paul, written in this order: the first to the Romans, then two to the Corinthians; after these, to the Galatians, next to the Ephesians, then to the Philippians, then to the Colossians. After these, two to the Thessalonians and that to the Hebrews; and again, two to Timothy, one to Titus, and lastly, that to Philemon. And besides, the Revelation of John. These

are fountains of salvation that they who thirst may be satisfied with the living words they contain, and these alone is proclaimed the doctrine of godliness. Let no man add to these, neither let them take out from these; for concerning these, the Lord put to shame the Sadducees and said, "You are wrong, not knowing the Scriptures." And He reproved the Jews, saying, "Search the Scriptures, for these are they that testify of Me." It was obvious to the readers of the four accounts of the Gospel that there are discrepancies and rough edges between the different accounts regarding

the same event. How many were present at the feeding of the followers of Christ: five thousand or seven thousand? How many loaves were there: five or seven? How many times did Jesus appear after His resurrection, and to whom? These were questions that the early believers had, but did not concern themselves with them as much as we do today, since they did not read Scripture as a mere historical account. They continued to regard all four accounts as authoritative, even as they struggled with such questions or as they sometimes referred to them as stumbling blocks. Attempts to

harmonize such texts were prominent in the second and third centuries. As David Bentley Hart puts it, the four Gospels were regarded as authoritative from a very early date, though they were often read not as discrete documents but in a combined, harmonized form. The most virtuosic of these harmonies was called the Diatesseron, which literally means "taken from the four," which was the work of the Christian philosopher Tatian in the year 185 A.D. A second-century Hellenized Syrian, Tatian of Adiabene, sought to combine all the material of the four Gospels—that of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—into a single

narrative that accounts for Jesus's life and death. Someone like Origen of Alexandria claimed that the questions or stumbling blocks were placed providentially by the Holy Spirit, that the reader may look for the deeper meaning behind these discrepancies. Origen would associate Christ's words, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God," with the theologians who would harmonize various texts of Scripture. Eusebius of Caesarea records the events of the controversy surrounding the date of Easter at the time of Pope Victor I, around 190 A.D. It was common for the churches of Asia to celebrate

Easter on the 14th day of the Jewish month of Nisan, regardless of whether it was a Sunday or not. As such, they observed the feast of Christ's Pascha and resurrection whenever the Jews did. The churches in the rest of the world would determine the day of Easter as being a Sunday. The controversy reached a climax when Pope Victor I contemplated excommunicating those who celebrated the feast of the resurrection on the fourteenth day of Nisan. He was, however, rebuked by Irenaeus of Lyon in a letter. The difference in practices, while maintaining communion with the churches, confirmed

the unity of faith. At this point, the church agreed to disagree when it came to the dating of Easter. The Fathers of the early church were aware that unity is not equated with uniformity. The challenge was identifying and maintaining coherence and unity within a diverse body. The church would later determine the date of Easter at the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D., and most Orthodox churches continue to follow the date as determined by the formula of Nicaea. However, there are exceptions today, such as the Orthodox Church of Finland, the Armenian Apostolic Oriental Orthodox Church, and

the Roman Catholic Church. Regardless, the celebration itself and its place theologically and spiritually greatly surpass the timing of the celebration. The early church suffered immense persecution since her birth, especially in Rome and Alexandria. The persecution differed with different emperors and rulers, but there was almost always persecution. If persecution was not imperial throughout the empire, there were certainly local waves of persecution. When an imperial persecution took place, it often came with the goal of exterminating Christianity. The persecution and bloodshed compelled an early Christian thinker named Tertullian to say, "The more you mow us down, the more

we grow; the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church." Examples of waves of persecution were experienced under Maximinus Thrax around 235 A.D., Decius around 250 A.D., Valerian around 257 A.D., and the Great Persecution under Diocletian around 302 A.D. Cyprian of Carthage and Sixtus II of Rome were among the bishops who fell victims of the persecution of Valerian. Diocletian's persecution was so vicious that it marked the beginning of an ecclesial calendar adopted in Alexandria, known as the Calendar of the Martyrs. Although such waves of persecution would end with many devout Christians shedding their

blood for Christ as martyrs or confessors, some felt weak under the yoke of persecution and apostatized. This compelled the church to answer questions such as: Should one run toward martyrdom? Should one avoid martyrdom? What do we do with apostates who desire to return to the church? Theologians such as Origen of Alexandria encouraged pursuing martyrdom. As a teenager, he himself tried to be martyred, but because his mother hid his clothes, he was embarrassed to leave the house. However, he died because of his wounds at an old age. Cyprian of Carthage preferred that people avoid persecution lest

they fall weak and apostatize. If one is caught and tortured, Cyprian would say they should not deny Christ, whether in reality or in appearance, as some would pretend to deny Christ so they could escape persecution while still believing in their hearts. Cyprian considered those who denied Christ, whether in reality or... In appearance as apostates, when an apostate desired to return to the church, there was a controversy as to how they ought to be received. Some insisted that they would not be accepted into the church after having apostatized. Cyprian had a more moderate position, which required

them to live in repentance and not approach the chalice or partake of the Holy Communion until they were on their deathbed. This controversy caused minor schisms in Carthage and its surrounding regions in Africa. Carthage was an important sea of Africa, but it certainly did not compare in importance to the Sea of Alexandria and its school. The unparalleled attributes in Egypt made it a rich environment in which the gospel and theology could flourish. As Philip Schaff puts it, Alexandria was the metropolis of Egypt, the flourishing seat of commerce, of Grecian and Jewish learning, and of the

greatest library of the ancient world, and was destined to become one of the great centers of Christianity, the rival of Antioch and Rome. There, the religious life of Palestine and the intellectual culture of Greece commingled and prepared the way for the first school of theology, which aimed at a philosophic comprehension and vindication of the truths of revelation. The school of Alexandria was not limited to the teaching of Christian theology; rather, it began with secular science, moral and religious philosophy. Christian theology was divided over three major sections: a course for catechumens who were candidates for baptism

and were being introduced to the principles of Christianity; a course on Christian morals and ethics; and an advanced course on divine wisdom and Christian spirituality. Among the greatest teachers of the school of Alexandria was Origen, who composed voluminous commentaries on scripture. George Leonard Prestige records how one of Origen's famous students felt about learning under his guidance. He says, "To be under the intellectual charge of Origen," says Gregory, probably the Thaumaturgos, "was like living in a garden where fruits of the mind sprang up without toil to be happy with gladness by the happy occupants; he truly

was a paradise to us, after the likeness of the paradise of God. To leave him was to renascent the experience of Adam after the fall." Few teachers have ever won so remarkable a testimonial from their pupils. Father Tadrus Mality records the main characteristics of the school of Alexandria in his book on the school of Alexandria before Origen. Among these characteristics are: first, the centrality of deification; second, the centrality of soteriological theology; third, the oneness of the life among the students and teachers; fourth, a life of repentance; fifth, the usage of theological terms from Greek philosophy;

sixth, minimal time spent on defining theological terms; and seventh, an ecumenical spirit where students from different dioceses were equally welcomed into the school of Alexandria. The second and third centuries were blessed with a number of Christian theologians who shaped the expression of the early church's faith. We will explore three figures in this episode, namely Ignatius of Antioch, Justin the Martyr, and Origen of Alexandria. Let's begin with Ignatius of Antioch. Ignatius of Antioch was born around 50 A.D. in Rome in Syria and was martyred around the year 107 A.D. in Rome as he was devoured by

beasts in a Roman arena. His remains, or his relics, are now buried in Saint Peter's Basilica. Not a lot of details about his life are known, and virtually all we know about him comes from the seven letters he composed on his way to be executed in Rome. He was known for his opposition to Judaisers who taught that it was necessary to adopt the Jewish customs and practices in order to become a Christian. He also opposed Docetists, a branch of Gnosticism. Scholars speculate that he might have known the Apostle John. Some of the main themes that

appear in his writings include the double identity of Christ as God and man, martyrdom as unity with Christ, and the unity of the church gathered around one bishop and one Eucharist. Justin the Martyr was born around the year 100 A.D. in Flavia Palestine and was martyred in 165 A.D. in Rome. After a long journey of exploring philosophy, Justin came to find the fullness of truth around the year 130 A.D. He continued to appreciate the elements of truth in philosophy as he continued to wear the philosopher's cloak even after his conversion. He wrote two apologies or

statements in defense of Christianity to Roman rulers of his time. In these two apologies, he juxtaposed Christianity with paganism and other philosophies, showing the former to be superior. Justin recorded in these apologies a coherent summary of Christian theology and life; for example, Justin summarizes the events of the liturgy in the following quote: "On the day called Sunday, there is a gathering together in the same place of all who live in a given city or rural district. The memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read as long as time permits. Then, when

the reader ceases, the president in a discourse admonishes and urges the imitation of these good things. Next, we all rise together and send up prayers. When we cease from our prayer, bread is presented, and wine and water. The president, in the same manner, sends up prayers and thanksgivings according to his ability, and the people sing out their assent, saying, 'Amen.' A distribution and participation of the elements for which things have been given is made to each person, and to those who are not present they are sent by the deacons. Those who have means and are

willing, each according to his own choice, gives what he wills, and what is collected is deposited with the president. He provides for the orphans and widows, those who are in need on account of sickness or some other cause, those who are in bonds, strangers who are sojourning, and in a word, he becomes the protector of all who are in need." Justin was convinced that philosophies of his time included elements of the truth, which he titled "seeds of the logos." The fullness of the logos, however, is only found in Christ as confessed in Christianity. As Justin's

voice of preaching kept getting louder, he was arrested for treason and was killed as he said, "If..." We are punished for the sake of our Lord Jesus Christ; we hope to be saved. Origen was born in 184 A.D. in Alexandria and died after he was arrested and tortured in 253 A.D. Entire in Lebanon, Origen acted as a presider or dean of the School of Alexandria. Due to arguments between Origen and the patriarch of Alexandria, Demetrius, Origen chose to leave Alexandria and was ordained a priest in Lebanon. Some believe that the arguments between Origen and Demetrius

were theological, while the majority of scholars believe that they were the result of Demetrius's concern with Origen's popularity compromising his own authority as patriarch of Alexandria. Though Origen died in communion with the Church, he was anathematized, or his teachings were renounced, in the Council of Constantinople II in the year 553 A.D. Origen died having left the Church with a legacy of writings that reached approximately six thousand works, including "On First Principles," hundreds of commentaries on Scripture, and the "Hexapola," which is a document where Origen compared different translations and versions of the biblical verses of the

Old Testament. Years after his death, Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nazianzus relied on Origen in learning the Christian philosophy and theology. They compiled his spiritual sayings on prayer in what came to be known as the "Philocalia of Origen of Alexandria." The fourth century marks critical elements of Church development as foundational doctrines were being formulated in ecumenical councils and as Christianity was becoming part of the Empire after centuries of persecution. The fourth century marks the birth of monasticism in Egypt and later in the rest of the Empire until it reached Rome and Ireland. After a

complex history of internal battles within the Empire, Constantine, who lived between 272 to 337 A.D., became the emperor of Rome. According to Eusebius, Constantine beheld a vision of a cross with which he would conquer. Constantine marked his banners with the sign of the cross and triumphed in battle. When he became emperor, he decreed that there would be a policy of religious tolerance of Christianity in the Edict of Milan in 313 A.D. Theodosius the Great was one of his successors who made Christianity the state's religion. The christening of the Roman Empire led waves of persecution to

come to an end, and Christianity flourished. When waves of persecution came about, many who knew their potential weakness before the edge of the sword retreated to the desert, where they dedicated their lives to God. When persecution came to an end, some who could not offer their life to God through martyrdom chose to offer it to Him through the monastic vocation. Organized monasticism appeared first in Egypt under the leadership of Saint Anthony the Great, who lived between 251 to 356 A.D. and who lived in seclusion in the Mount of the Red Sea for approximately 20 years,

in which he reached spiritual maturity. Later, he would disciple a large number of ascetics, some of whom would become monastic leaders themselves, such as Macarius of Egypt. Macarius of Egypt, who lived between 300 to 391 A.D., retreated to the Western Desert of Egypt, where he began a monastic community that remains to this day. Like Anthony, his disciples lived a secluded life of contemplation; unlike Anthony, however, Macarius required his disciples to meet once a week on Sunday to partake of the Eucharist and potentially hold a spiritual meeting or share a common meal. Pachomius of Egypt, who

lived between 292 to 348 A.D., was a pagan soldier who was captivated by the hospitality of Christians in Upper Egypt, and he decided to consecrate himself to the God of Christians. Pachomius would establish a number of monastic communities and monasteries where monks lived in a communion of love under one roof. He commissioned his sister to lead a similar life in convents for women who desired the monastic vocation. Monasticism was taken to the West at the hands of Athanasius, who shared the monastic way with the people of Ireland in one of his exiles. The formal transmission

of monastic wisdom to the West came about at the hands of John Cassian, who lived between 360-435 A.D. John went through the Eastern deserts collecting monastic wisdom and customs, which he recorded in his books on the "Conferences" and the "Institutions." In the 5th century, Benedict, who lived between 480 to 546 A.D., would start a revival of Western monasticism that would create numerous monasteries dedicated to the service of the masses. In the 4th century, a famous Alexandrian priest with the name Arius claimed that Christ was God and, as much as he is greater than us, but

he is not equal to the Father. In reality, Arius said that there was a time when the Son was not. He propagated his ideas with the use of music and chants, which captivated the hearts of illiterate Christians. This caused immense turmoil and disturbed the peace of the Church and the Empire. Consequently, Constantine called for a council of 318 bishops to settle the matter in Nicaea in 325 A.D. In Nicaea, the faith of Arius was anathematized or denounced, and the creed was written down: "We believe in the Holy Spirit." Nicaea upheld the consubstantiality of the Son

with the Father, or that the Son is of the same essence or of the same substance as the Father before all ages, and that He is true God from true God in every sense. This did not settle the matter, as the successors of Constantine would adopt Nicene orthodoxy at times and Arianism at other times. Athanasius was a learned deacon, a disciple of Anthony the Great, and a disciple of Alexandrius of Alexandria. Athanasius assisted Alexandrius of Alexandria in combating Arianism in the Council of Nicaea. Later, Athanasius would become the patriarch of Alexandria, who would suffer exile

five times at the hands of the successors of Constantine. Whether before his elevation to the patriarchal throne, or in exile, or in his sea, Athanasius spared no effort to write and educate his people through theological texts such as "Against the Arians," "On the Incarnation," or "Against the Heathens," or the "Four Letters of Serapion," or spiritual texts such as "The Life of Anthony." Aside from the Council of Nicaea's decisions against Arianism, it unified the date of Easter, which would be determined by the patriarch of... Alexandria, finally ending a controversy that took place as early as the

second century, dictated that there would be no kneeling on Sunday and that there should be only one bishop per jurisdiction. The council was by no means conclusive, as it did not put an end to the controversy. The churches of the East were divided among themselves, as some were Aryans, some adhered fully to the Nicene faith, and others adhered to the Nicene faith but could not accept the theological formulation of homoousios or the consubstantiality of the Father with the Son—that is, the Father and the Son share the same substance or essence. The West was committed to

the Nicene cause in terms of theological formulation and pastoral decisions. In the East, some who were Aryans began to accept the consubstantiality of the Father and the Son but rejected the divinity of the Spirit. Athanasius had to combat them in four letters he sent to Serapion, a bishop in Egypt, in which he elucidated the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Athanasius would die before the controversy around the Holy Spirit, and his legacy would be upheld after him by the Cappadocian Fathers. The three Cappadocian Fathers are Basil the Great, who lived between 329 to 379 A.D.; his

brother Gregory of Nyssa, who lived between 335 to 394 A.D.; and his friend Gregory of Nazianzus, who lived between 330 to 389 A.D. Basil and Gregory of Nyssa lived in the same household, where they were heavily influenced in their theology and spirituality by their sister Macrina, who consecrated herself to Christ after the passing away of the man she was betrothed to. Basil received an education to be a lawyer and an orator, and with his friend Gregory of Nazianzus, under the influence of Macrina, Basil became an ascetic, then a priest, until he became Bishop of Caesarea

in 370 A.D. Basil was dedicated to the Nicene cause, along with the expansion of ministry for the poor and marginalized and the geographical expansion of his diocese to prevent Aryan bishops from rising to influential ecclesial ranks. In the course of the geographic expansion of his diocese, Basil appointed his brother Gregory a bishop over Nyssa, where he spent the rest of his life serving until he was exiled from the empire. Gregory of Nyssa, unlike his brother, was a married man, a philosopher, and a mystic. Gregory believed in universal salvation, though he was not anathematized with the

Origenists in the Fifth Ecumenical Council, who followed Origen's view on universal salvation. Gregory of Nyssa may be described as a man of sorrows, as he lived through the death of the most influential figures of his life: his brother Basil and his sister Macrina. Gregory of Nazianzus was also known as Gregory the Theologian, a title only given to him and John the Evangelist in the Oriental Orthodox Churches and to Simeon the New Theologian as well in the Eastern Orthodox Church. After finishing his studies with Basil, Gregory sought solitude and became an ascetic. His ascetic life was

interrupted by his father Gregory the Elder, who needed assistance in shepherding his flock. As such, Gregory the Theologian became involved in ecclesial life. He moved between different dioceses, such as Nazianzus and Constantinople, which was not accepted by other bishops as it opposed the decrees of Nicaea. Gregory accepted the disapproval of some bishops who opposed his shifts of jurisdiction, and he returned to live an ascetic life toward the end of his life. Basil, with Gregory the Theologian, compiled the Filocalia of Origen. Basil composed a treatise on the human condition, another titled Six Days of Creation, or

the Hexamiron, and a defense of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Gregory of Nyssa composed biographies such as The Life of Moses and The Life of Macrina. He composed a number of theological writings, such as The Great Catechism, On the Soul and Resurrection, Against Eunomius, The Creation of Man, and On Virginity. Gregory the Theologian is mostly known for his orations and numerous letters. His five theological orations are what earned him the title Theologian. The time of the Cappadocian Fathers was a difficult time for the Church. Sabellianism and Apollinarianism were on the rise, while the danger

of Arianism and Pneumatomachians persisted. Sabellianism claimed that there is only one hypostasis or person, which was manifested in three different ways: the Father in the Old Testament, the Son in the New Testament, and the Holy Spirit after the ascension. Please note that the term hypostasis refers to an underlying reality or substance; this may sometimes refer to a concrete thing or a person. Apollinaris was initially committed to the Nicene cause and often supported Athanasius in his commitment to the divinity of Christ and the oneness of Christ after the incarnation. He fell into the extreme of believing

that Christ had flesh without a soul; in other words, he was not a rationally animated being. This was considered by the Cappadocian Fathers a compromise of the humanity of Christ and the economy of the incarnation. How can Christ not have a rational mind or a soul? He must be a perfect human being in order to save humans. Pneumatomachians is a name for those who considered the Holy Spirit inferior to the Father and the Son and counted the Holy Spirit among the angels. Seeing that these controversies were dividing churches, especially in Antioch, which had four bishops

at one point, Emperor Theodosius deemed it fit to call for a council of 150 bishops in Constantinople in the year 381 A.D. The council dealt with the aforementioned heresies, together with pastoral and jurisdictional matters. The council is credited with having completed the creed from after the clause "We believe in the Holy Spirit" until the end. The formulation of the doctrine of the Spirit entailed Him being called "the Lord and Giver of Life," who is to be worshipped with the Father and the Son. The fathers at the council standardized the use of the terms ousia and

hypostasis, putting an end to the Trinitarian controversy. Ousia refers to the general or essence of God in the Trinity, and hypostasis refers to the particular or the person in the Trinity. Methods of receiving the heretics and schismatics into the Catholic Church were discussed and formalized. The Church of Constantinople was elevated as... The second Rome, which would deal with jurisdictional issues as a court of appeal for other churches, despite Timothy of Alexandria's presence and precedence over the Council of Constantinople, along with others such as Malicious of Antioch, Gregory of Niziensis, and Nictarius of Constantinople, was not

acknowledged by Alexandria for a while before it became universally acceptable. It was deficient as a council that it had to be followed up by two local councils in 382 and 383 A.D. The theological success of the Council of Constantinople was not immediately recognized, the fact that it did not reach conclusive solutions for jurisdictional issues and its failure to resolve the Antiochian schisms topped off this lack of recognition. The council only received its status as an ecumenical council in the year 451 A.D. in the Council of Chalcedon. Though the lives of saints such as Athanasius of

Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nissa, and Gregory the Theologian have been addressed, one cannot conclude the fourth century without mentioning the greatest Christian author of Western Christianity, Augustine of Hippo, and the greatest Christian orator of Eastern Christianity, John Chrysostom. John was born in Antioch around 347 A.D. and died in exile in the year 407 A.D. He was raised by his widowed mother to be a rhetorician, then later a theologian. After he became committed to Christianity, John was a reader in the church for a number of years until he became an ascetic, opposing all offers

of priesthood. Against his will, he was ordained a deacon, then a priest, and finally archbishop of Constantinople in 398 A.D. Because of his strong views about the behavior of the emperor, his popularity in the palace deteriorated immensely at the hand of the empress. Along with Theophilus of Alexandria, John Chrysostom was exiled twice. During the second exile, John was not assigned a place of exile; this meant that he was to walk with no determined destination until his soul left his body. Having died excommunicated by Alexandria, John's name was later reinstated in the diptychs of Alexandria by

Cyril of Alexandria, who was Theophilus's nephew and who would succeed him to the patriarchal throne. Now, the term diptyx refers to the official lists of the living and departed that are commemorated by the church during the liturgical gatherings. John left behind a collection of six books on the priesthood, a number of letters, and countless homilies ranging from commentaries on the scripture to Christian morals and ethics, such as marriage, fasting, and giving alms. Augustine was born in 354 A.D. in Algeria to a middle-class family and died there in 430 A.D. before the siege of Hippo at

the hands of the barbarians, who put an end to the presence of Christianity in the 6th century. Augustine received first-class education through his parents, who borrowed money to ensure that he received a proper education. Augustine had an immense interest in philosophy but lived a hedonistic lifestyle, indulging in sensual pleasures, which resulted in a child born in adultery. His mother, Monica, was in sorrow and tears, desiring the repentance of her son. Eventually, Augustine would repent and become an ascetic, then later a bishop in 395 A.D. Though Augustine composed numerous theological writings and commentaries on scripture, it

should be noted that he did not know Hebrew and Greek; as such, he relied exclusively on the Vulgate, which is the Latin translation of scripture and which, as some scholars suggest, contains inaccuracies in its translation that would eventually affect Augustinian theology and Augustine's perception of original sin, purgatory, and the Filioque. Augustine's legacy included treatises such as "On Christian Doctrine," "On the Trinity," "The Confessions," "City of God," and numerous commentaries on scripture. The fifth century is packed with numerous theological controversies, which left the church in schisms that persist to this very day. Despite being a tragic

century in this sense, it included numerous figures who upheld the orthodox faith as received from the apostles through the fathers of the fourth century to those of the fifth century. With the dawn of the fifth century, a new patriarch named Nestorius was elevated to the patriarchal throne of Constantinople after John Chrysostom had died in exile. Like Chrysostom, Nestorius was a committed disciple of the School of Antioch and its leader, Theodore of Mopsuestia. In contrast to the School of Alexandria, the School of Antioch emphasized the distinction between the divinity and the humanity in the person of

Jesus Christ. The School of Alexandria, however, emphasized the unity of Christ's being and did not focus on the distinction between humanity and divinity. Nestorius used the rationale of his school to form a new opinion where he refused to call Mary the Mother of God or Theotokos and preferred to call her Christotokos, Mother of Christ, or Anthropotokos, Mother of the Man. This was based on the proposition that Mary gave birth to an ordinary man who later became conjugated with the Logos, or the Word of God. This claim was based on the School of Antioch's teachings. The

claim that Mary was the Mother of Christ or Man was met with resistance from the people of Constantinople. Cyril of Alexandria, who was the nephew and successor of Theophilus—the one who had excommunicated John Chrysostom, the predecessor of Nestorius—was highly displeased with such notions and began exchanging letters with Nestorius. When the exchange of letters failed to end the controversy, Emperor Theodosius II convened a council of 200 bishops in Ephesus in 431 A.D. The council took place during the reign of Pope Celestine of Rome and his deacon Leo, who were not present at the council but rather

sent delegates on their behalf. Leo would later become the Pope of Rome during the time of the Council of Chalcedon in 451 A.D. Alexandria's representatives were Cyril and his deacon Dioscorus. From Constantinople, Nestorius was present with his bishops. His supporters from Antioch, headed by John of Antioch, arrived late to the council so that the council began its sessions prior to their arrival. The Council of Ephesus consisted of seven sessions, which ran from June 22 until July 31st. The council condemned the heresy of Nestorius and upheld the orthodoxy of the title Theotokos used by Cyril of

Alexandria. Nestorius was exiled, deposed from his office, and replaced with Flavian of Constantinople. Cyril's theology was... Predicated upon the unity of Christ, in Cyril's conception, Jesus Christ was one incarnate nature, meaning one subject and one hypostasis. After the incarnation, Cyril used the terms nature and hypostasis interchangeably, as did the Alexandrians and some Antiochians. Hypostasis denotes a concrete reality that may be simple or composite. In the case of Christ, the one hypostasis encompassed the divinity and humanity in their fullness; yet, Christ remained one subject and one hypostasis. To Cyril, Christ's oneness does not compromise the distinction

of the divinity and humanity from which the one Christ is composed, though this distinction is in contemplation alone or in one's thoughts alone. This language, which Cyril used, together with the fact that the council began prior to the arrival of the Antiochian party, caused the Church of Antioch to impeach communion with the Church of Alexandria. When a schism was clearly emerging, Cyril of Alexandria approached John of Antioch to reunite and compose a formula of reunion that ended the schism between the two churches. The formula of reunion allowed the Antiochians to use the two-nature language instead

of the one-nature language initially used by Cyril and the Alexandrians, though only if it was accompanied by sufficient qualifications that preserved the unity. As John McGugan puts it, Cyril had no intention of using such language, i.e., the two-nature or the diphysite language himself. In the letter to Yologius, regarding that Christ is one, he says explicitly that he regarded their whole way of thinking and arguing as obscure. He admitted that diophysite terms could be orthodox on two grounds. The first was that the natures in question mean natural properties, not independent subject entities, and therefore, one was

talking about states or conditions and not persons. The second was that their continuing coexistence should be radically qualified by sufficient indications that these two realities had actually been united and made one, were inseparable in mutual communion, or only notably separable, like body and soul, and not practically divisible. Cyril seems to have reassured them, i.e., the Cerulean party, his own party, on the basis that it was a concession to be understood in terms of his previous teaching, not as an amendment of it. As such, it became clear that the decrees of the council and the formula

of reunion were to be always paired together to formulate the Christology of the Church. The tension between the one and two-nature formulations continued to persist, especially with extremists at both ends of the spectrum. An example of this is Eutyches, a Constantinian Archaemenidrite who had minimal theological training and who planted the seeds of a church schism that would persist to this very day. Eutyches, who lived between 378 and 456 A.D., had a large group of monks following him. He was sincerely committed to the Alexandrian formula of the one nature, which Cyril coined and the Council of

Ephesus upheld. Because of his ignorance, Eutyches made a false claim entailing that Christ's humanity was overwhelmed by the divinity and that Christ's humanity ceased to have real existence; as such, the only nature in Christ is the divine nature. When Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople, heard this, he excommunicated Eutyches and contacted Leo, who was the pope of Rome after Celestine passed away. Leo responded to Flavian in a letter that came to be known as the Tome of Leo. The letter elucidated the erroneous teachings of Eutyches, and in combating Eutyches's faulty definition of the one nature, Leo did

not adhere to the explanation of the one nature formula but rather appealed to the formula of reunion and used the two-nature formula in an exclusive manner that could be misinterpreted as crypto-Nestorian. Eutyches, feeling misunderstood, appealed to Emperor Theodosius II and Dioscorus, the Pope of Alexandria, who succeeded Cyril of Alexandria. Theodosius II convened a second council in Ephesus in the year 449 A.D., co-headed by Dioscorus of Alexandria and Juvenal of Jerusalem. This was later known as the Second Council of Ephesus. In this council, Eutyches anathematized or denounced the teachings of Nestorius and Apollinarius, and admitted in

a written confession that he, who is the Word of God, came down from heaven without flesh and was made flesh in the Holy Virgin's womb unchangeably and unalterably, as he himself knew and willed. He was always perfect God before the ages and was also made perfect man in the end of days. Eutyches claimed that this had been always his faith and that Flavian accused him of heresy based on this confession. Consequently, Flavian was condemned by the council as a heretic, and the letter or the Tome of Leo was not read. The same council anathematized Ibas

of Edessa and Theodoret of Cyrus based on their Nestorian writings in which they vehemently attacked Cyril and his legacy, which has been confirmed by the Council of Ephesus in 431 A.D. It is claimed that Dioscorus of Alexandria and Juvenal of Jerusalem used rather stern measures in dealing with bishops and resolving conflicts. Consequently, Leo of Rome called the Second Council of Ephesus the "Robber Council." Not long afterward, Theodosius II fell off his horse and died. Marcian, a general in Theodosius II's army, succeeded him after marrying Pulcheria, who was Theodosius II's sister. Pulcheria and Marcian were more

sympathetic toward Constantinople and Rome and had little tolerance toward Alexandria, unlike their predecessor Theodosius. As Father John Meyendorff puts it, there is no doubt, however, that Marcian and Pulcheria had definitely decided to put an end to the de facto power of the Bishop of Alexandria. For decades, the latter was able to impose his will upon the universal church without paying any attention to the honorary position acquired by Constantinople in the year 381 A.D., that is, the year of the Council of Constantinople. The imperial couple felt the need to put an end to Alexandria's immense ecclesial

power. The rumors concerning the use of force and violence at the Council of Ephesus II in 449 A.D. did not help the situation, although the use of force and violence was common at church councils in this era. Two years after Ephesus II, in 449 A.D., Emperor Marcian called for the Council of Chalcedon to set aside Ephesus II and the Church of Alexandria. Though the Council of Chalcedon had political elements to it, the gathered bishops dealt... With theological, jurisdictional, and pastoral matters, the Council of Chalcedon is credited with universalizing the acceptance of the Council of Constantinople,

the first, which was conducted in 381 A.D. and which was not universally recognized before Chalcedon. The council coined a substantial list of canons assisting in church governance. The council also deposed Eutychus on theological grounds, given his vacillating or wavering behavior, which was expressed before and during the Council of Ephesus II in 449 A.D. Negative elements of the Council of Chalcedon are seen in its framing of Dioscorus as the sole responsible individual for all the inadequacies that took place in Ephesus II, despite the council being headed by both Dioscorus of Alexandria and Juvenal of Jerusalem. When

Dioscorus saw the way he was framed, he refused to appear before the council. As per the protocol of ecclesial councils, he was deposed after having been summoned three times and refusing to appear before the council. Dioscorus, as such, was deposed on procedural grounds rather than theological grounds, as it became apparent in the council that he did not share the erroneous thoughts of Eutychus. Another negative element of the council was its leniency towards Theodorate of Cyrus and Abbas of Edessa, who were readmitted into communion and were rehabilitated as bishops despite their Nestorian allegiance. Finally, the council

endorsed the Tome of Leo, which he had sent to Flavian, as the authoritative definition of faith, despite a number of bishops finding ambiguous statements in the tome. There was yet another definition of faith composed by the council in 451 A.D., which goes as follows: "Therefore, following the holy fathers, we all with one accord teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, at once complete in godhead and complete in manhood, truly God and truly man, consisting also of a reasonable soul and body, of one substance with the Father as regards his

godhead, and at the same time of one substance with us as regards his manhood, like us in all respects apart from sin; as regards his godhead, begotten of the Father before the ages; but yet, as regards his manhood, begotten for us men and for our salvation of Mary, the Virgin, the God-bearer, one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, recognized in two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation; the distinction of natures being in no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature being preserved and coming together to

form one person and subsistence, not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the same Son and only begotten God, the Word, Lord Jesus Christ, even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the fathers has handed down to us." The Alexandrians and some Antiochians were not fond of the treatment of Dioscorus of Alexandria in the Council of Chalcedon or the way the Tome of Leo was imposed on all the churches. Indeed, some saw the council as a betrayal of Cyril

of Alexandria because it canonized the language of the two natures, which he had only conceded to for the sake of reunion, as in the formula of reunion. But he had never established it as the standard. Statements in the Tome of Leo, such as "the one of these shines out in miracles" referring to the divine nature, and "the other succumbs to injuries" referring to the human nature, seemed to betray the line of thinking of Cyril, where all attributes and activities are to be attributed to the person rather than the individual natures. In other words, only one

person, namely Christ, can be born, suffer, or perform a miracle, rather than ascribing hunger, thirst, and suffering to the human nature as an isolated nature from the divinity, which in that case would only perform miracles. Consequently, the divinity wouldn't be in full unity with the humanity. The Tome of Leo sounded both ambiguous and unfit to be the standard of faith due to its usage of the Latin term "persona," which could be translated to mean "prosopon" in reference to the unity between the divinity and humanity rather than the hypostatic union, the unity of the divine and

human natures at the level of the persona. This implied external realities becoming united as opposed to hypostatic union or natural unity, which is more of an internal union. In other words, Cyril was inclined to emphasize the union of the divine nature and human nature in one composite nature to affirm the reality of the union being natural, that is, hypostatic and internal. The Latin reading of the Tome of Leo, however, could imply the unity to be between a divine and a human person, thus rendering the unity to be a mere conjunction that is prosopic and external.

This implication raised skepticism on the side of a number of the attending bishops, including those who subscribed to Chalcedon and those who rejected it. These factors, together with the political elements of deposing Dioscorus of Alexandria, for example, without deposing Juvenal of Jerusalem, who had attended with Dioscorus the Second Council of Ephesus in 449 A.D., and the readmission of Abbas of Edessa and Theodorate of Cyrus, were seen by the anti-Chalcedonians negatively and one that is leaning towards the teaching of Nestorius. This caused a violent schism between the Chalcedonians and anti-Chalcedonians. The Chalcedonians accused the anti-Chalcedonians of

being Monophysites or Eutychians, who were those that adopted the single-nature form of Christology where Christ's humanity was engulfed by the divinity to form a single nature. The anti-Chalcedonians accused the Chalcedonians of being Nestorians, viewing them as ones who believed in two separate natures in Christ. This caused riots and mobs to disturb the peace within Alexandria and Antioch. A lot of blood was shed, to the extent that ten thousand anti-Chalcedonian Christians in Alexandria were killed at one time for choosing their own patriarch rather than succumbing to the imperially appointed Chalcedonian patriarch. The anti-Chalcedonians have also been

accused of murdering one of the Chalcedonian patriarchs, who acted as both patriarch and prefect or governor simultaneously. His attempts to subdue anti-Chalcedonians were seen as attempts of colonization under the veil of accepting the council. The schism in the East was treated by the Henotikon. A formula of faith coined by Emperor Zeno in 481 A.D., the emperor who was Christologically satisfactory to both sides, clarified that both sides had the same faith regarding Christ. However, its omission of anything related to Chalcedon was infuriating for the Church of Rome; thus, Rome impeached communion with all the bishops of

the East who signed the document, as it was seen as a betrayal of the perfection of Chalcedon. This schism came to be known as the Occasion Schism, after Achakius, Bishop of Constantinople, who accepted the Henotikon despite Felix of Rome not accepting it. Alexandrians were no less suspicious of Chalcedon and the Henotikon and wished that Chalcedon might be fully omitted from church history. Anti-Chalcedonian masses were suspicious of their own patriarchs and bishops who would sign the Henotikon. In a way, the schism persisted because of the fundamentalism of Anti-Chalcedonians in Alexandria and the fundamentalism of Chalcedonians in

Rome. The former party saw Chalcedon in a purely negative light, whereas the latter perceived Chalcedon's authority to be authoritative and unquestionable. Eventually, the reunion of the Henotikon would ultimately fail, and the schism would persist after Zeno died in 491 A.D.