Como sabemos as cores reais de alguns animais extintos?

Meet Gertie the dinosaur. This film of about 12 minutes is considered the first animated film, in 1914. More than 109 years ago, Winsor McCay practically invented keyframe animation as we know it.

And it depicts a dinosaur. The first animation ever made is paleoart. An attempt to bring extinct animals such as dinosaurs and mammoths back to life.

But it is in black and white, it lacks one of the most important elements for the imagination: colors. 15 years ago, if you asked a paleontologist what the colors of a dinosaur were, he would say that's something we'll never know. There wasn't even the remotest hint of it.

Unfortunately, some information was simply lost to time and not preserved in the rocks, leaving paleoartists the speculative task of imagining the colors of extinct animals. But from there to here, a revolution happened! Technological and methodological innovations have made what seemed impossible: to infer the colors in life of some of the best preserved fossils that we know of.

They were very different than we imagined! Today, you will meet 5 extinct animals whose colors and general appearance were patiently deciphered by the work of hundreds of scientists, bringing for the first time in millions of years a clear view of these creatures lost in deep time. To find out which animals these are, what their colors were and how they were discovered, stay here!

My name is Abner and welcome to ABC Terra Why do colors matter? Without them, we would never be able to imagine a living dinosaur. At the beginning of the history of dinosaur representation, they were gray, brown and green, because at the time, they were compared to current lizards, only bigger.

This is Duria Antiquior, painted in 1830 by Henry de La Breche, recognized as the first paleoart. It was based on fossils collected by Mary Anning, representing the English Jurassic, over 160 million years ago, at a time when many considered it blasphemous to believe in extinction and deep time scales. It is very outdated and does not represent what we think about these animals today, but it is still a powerful image.

BRUNO: In the 19th century it was blasphemous not only to think about deep geological time and the concept of extinction, but also to have a woman make great scientific discoveries. Mary Anning never received due recognition in life, because she was in an even more sexist and patriarchal society than today's society. So, today we recognize the importance of Mary Anning, of her discoveries: she discovered the first ichthyosaur in the world, for example, she discovered several fossils of extinct marine reptiles, the first pterosaur outside Germany, and that's why the illustration Duria antiquior is so important, because it represents not only the first paleoart in the world, but also the first paleoart was only possible thanks to the works of Mary Anning.

Paleoart can be amateur or professional, but what they have in common is the objective of reconstructing an element of the past by making extrapolations and inferences based on fossil material. It's a job that needs both science and creativity. The more we know about an animal, the less holes we need to fill in with imagination.

That's why there are paleoarts of the same animal that are very different from each other. And that's good, because it feeds the notion that there are many open possibilities and unanswered questions in paleontology. Paleoartists have a lot of work to do.

They need to turn the latest life history science information into art. Art is important because it draws attention, tells stories, fascinates and teaches. Paleoart evolves along with paleontology, as we get to know each animal better and better.

But not all animals have a good amount of fossils available. Many are just fragments of what is suspected to be a new species, but it is so little information that it is possible to assume very little about its life. Few are like mammoths, for example: animals we know an immense amount of bones, as well as those that preserve the original colors and practically perfect frozen mummies.

Rebuilding a living mammoth is so much easier that they're thinking of literally doing it. RODOLFO: Oh Abner my brother Master, do you know the question I hear most when I say I'm a Paleoartist? How do you choose the colors of extinct animals?

And I answer, the color I want, they don't exist anymore. After the laughs I tell the truth. Yes, we paleoartists use a lot of imagination, but it is always guided by the maximum amount of scientific information.

Rarely have we preserved direct records of the colors of extinct organisms. So we start with the basics of comparison with living animals. Could it be that this extinct animal we are representing has living relatives?

If it were, for example, a giant sloth, an Eremotherium, could I use a lizard as a reference to imagine its colors? It could even if there weren't animals closer to it, like today's sloths or anteaters. And do these two animals have colors in common?

Yes, black brown beige white. So would it be less wrong for me to draw a giant sloth with these colors or using purple, pink or blue for example? What if I had to represent a dinosaur?

Does he have living relatives? He has! The birds as descendants and the crocodiles and alligators as cousins, so to speak.

And what are the colors of these animals? Very varied isn't it? We humans are very visual, so more than knowing how they sounded, moved and behaved, we want to know what dinosaurs looked like visually.

We don't usually look at dinosaurs as particularly colorful critters. Most media depict them in beige, gray, and green colors, basing them on modern-day lizards. But these representations are very conservative, because even today's lizards don't have such boring colors, many of them have extremely vivid colors and psychedelic patterns.

It's birds we should look to extrapolate colors from dinosaurs that we can only speculate on, and birds are the most colorful group of vertebrates. And they are the only living group of dinosaurs, that is. .

. most likely the dinos were much more colorful than we imagine. Dinosaurs must have been insanely beautiful.

But how can we be almost sure of the colors of some species, and what do we need to determine the color of a fossil animal? Our first dinosaur helps us answer that question. Meet Sinosauropteryx, the first feathered dinosaur found in China, in 1996.

Contrary to what people have come to expect from a dinosaur, it wasn't giant, far from it. Its body was very light and agile, just under a meter in length. This compsognathid theropod lived in the early Cretaceous, 125 million years ago.

Like many Chinese dinosaurs, it ranks among the most beautifully preserved animals ever found in the history of paleontology. And consequently, it is one of the most beautiful fossils in the world. Not only is it possible to see its preserved down with the naked eye, but part of its pattern in life is already evident right away.

Observing the fossil of this animal, we noticed a layer of structures similar to hair, called protopenas. They are, in fact, more like fur than bird feathers, structurally. The tail, covered in protofeathers alternates between lighter and darker regions.

In life, Sinosauropteryx's true colors were dazzling: it was red on the back, with a white belly, a ringed tail with red and white bands, and a black mask around the eyes. Something that might superficially resemble a lemur or a raccoon. Color is not merely aesthetic.

In nature, it performs a number of functions and passes many errands. Colors can indicate age, sex, can camouflage an animal, or make it stand out, either to warn of danger or to attract mates. From sex, protection, communication, the colors of animals are not random, therefore , knowing the colors, it is possible to infer many things about their way of life.

An animal that camouflages itself is usually an easy target, and the type of camouflage tells us whether it inhabited open or closed areas, for example. Understanding that there were color differences between males and females can help us look at the reproductive behavior and intelligence of animals. But how was it possible to decipher the colors of Sinosauropteryx?

The key to understanding lies in something that even you have: melanosomes. This is the name we give to the cells that house melanin, the protein that gives us the color of our skin and hair. Melanin is a chemical compound that is extremely resistant to pressure, radiation and heat, which is why our body uses it to protect us from the sun's rays.

Lighter skin with less melanin is more sensitive to the sun and burns easily. Melanin is so resistant that sometimes it even fossilizes. In 2010, Michael Benton and team published research at the University of Bristol, convincingly arguing that they had found fossilized melanosomes in Sinosauropteryx.

They used living birds to infer the colors that Sinosauropteryx melanosomes would give it in life. This is because there are some variants of the melanin pigment, and some melanosome formats, combining the analysis of their formats, distribution and density, it is possible to have a good idea of ​​the original color of a fossilized structure. This is all if preservation is generous, of course, after all, it is an important but microscopic detail.

According to Benton, “One form of Melanin called Eumelanin imparts all black, brown and gray colors , another, pheomelanin imparts red tones. That's all mammals have, whereas birds have two other pigments in their feathers: porphyrins that give purple and greenish colors, and carotenoids that go from red to pink. " RODOLFO: Birds are the queens of vision in the animal world, some species see details miles away and a spectrum with millions of colors that we humans can't even imagine because we can't see.

No wonder they display completely bold, amazing and so diverse color combinations. By the bone structure of the orbits and even the brains of dinosaurs, we imagine that they would have visual abilities similar to birds and therefore they should see very well, which would allow them to be very colorful if this was somehow useful for their lifestyle. In 2010, Sinosauropteryx was shown to have melanosomes of the shape that harbor the red pigment: pheomelanossomes.

Other pigment capsules suggest that the hairs on the tail and belly rings were white, and a single black detail graced this animal's face. This was probably one of the most exciting and fascinating scientific discoveries in all of history. Sinosauropteryx should be as famous as T rex, being the first dinosaur to have its true colors reconstructed by paleontologists.

But he was only the first. Try to imagine this animal alive today, interacting with our world, what a sight that would be. Maybe we were more shocking to him than he was to us.

Our second dinosaur is also from the Chinese Cretaceous, and is one of the most well- known dinosaurs in the fossil record. Psittacosaurus means parrot lizard, in reference to its beak, very similar to that of parrots. It is a basal ceratopsid, which means it was very similar to the ancestor of triceratops, which lived tens of millions of years later.

But unlike its giant descendants, it still walked most of the time on its hind legs, a biped. This Labrador-sized animal may have been one of the most successful dinosaurs of all time, given its abundance in the fossil record and breadth of geographic distribution. It was a generalist herbivore that swallowed small rocks to aid in the digestion of highly fibrous material.

It is believed that psittacosaurus was very intelligent, as it engaged in complex social behavior. Evidence of this is a fossil formed during a volcanic eruption that reveals an adolescent female and dozens of psittacosaurus pups, who met a similar end to the inhabitants. from Pompeii.

As this female had not reached reproductive age, she could not have been the mother, making this the first known fossil of a nanny. The genus Psittacosaurus is home to 18 different species, represented by hundreds of fossils and some complete skeletons. So it is very likely that there was some variation in color and pattern among the many species.

One of these fossils, however, reveals much more than the skeleton. This is the kind of fossil with the potential to permanently transform our view of an animal, bringing us closer to what it actually looked like in life. Psittacosaurus was named in 1923 by Henry Osborn, the same man who named Tyrannosaurus rex.

But it was in 2002 that the most complete fossil was found, Senckenberg's Psittacosaurus, published by Gerald Mayr. He reveals that Psittacosaurus had a beige-brown color on the back, punctuated with black spots, with a paler belly and stiff protofeathers like a porcupine's quills on the tail. This was amazing, because it demonstrated the presence of protopenas in a dinosaur very far removed from birds evolutionarily, suggesting that this may have been an ancestral feature of all dinosaurs, with some groups retained or lost over time.

What's more, it was possible for the first time to observe the anatomy of a dinosaur's cloaca perfectly. Cloacas are shared orifices for all purposes of excretion and reproduction, and this information gives us more details about the reproductive biology of these animals. The two horns that protrude from the face are most likely sexually selected, either for aesthetics or being used in territorial or peer disputes between males.

The psittacosaurus pattern in life was very effective at camouflage in the diffused light of a forested environment. The difference between darker colors on the back and lighter colors on the belly is a very common camouflage strategy called counter shading. We can observe it in a good part of today's animals, from fish to gazelles, because the concept is very simple and very effective.

As the light comes from above, it tends to make the upper part of the animal lighter, forming a dark shadow on the belly. When animals have a dark back and a lighter belly, this helps to attenuate the visual effect of the animal's shadow, making it less three-dimensional and more difficult to see from a distance. BRUNO: The countershading pattern is observed not only in terrestrial animals, but it is very common in aquatic animals as well, especially in large marine predators, for example a current large marine predator which are killer whales, they take this pattern to the extreme .

, having the back not only darker, but completely black, and the belly completely light, completely white. Thus, when the orcas are viewed from above, the black back blends in with the darkness of the deep sea, while when viewed from below, its clear belly blends in with the sunlight that illuminates the surface of the sea. ocean.

This pattern was also observed in some extinct animals, for example, in 2010, a very well preserved fossil of a Mosasaurus, a Platecarpus, from Kansas, in the USA, was published, so well preserved that it was possible to notice even the rings that formed his trachea. In addition to scale patterns, and pigmentation patterns are also preserved in the fossil. Which indicates that this animal also had the same pattern of darker back and lighter belly.

When the counter shading has a smoother transition, like psittacosaurus, this could indicate that the camouflage worked better indoors, with more diffused light. Well-defined patterns, such as that of Sinosauropteryx, are evidence of functional camouflage in open environments, where shadows are more direct. RODOLFO: We also observe camouflage patterns and ecological strategies of current animals of the same size as the one we want to draw, and that live in similar environments and eat the same things.

For example, do you think it would be to an advantage for a black panther to hunt in the savannah? How could she hide among the golden grass to catch prey? And wouldn't it overheat like the black T-shirt we wear in the sun?

So we quickly concluded that it would be better if she hunted in the forest, isn't it, even better at night? So if I were to reconstruct an extinct predator that hunts in the open, would it be parsimonious to imagine it black? No.

Our understanding of what Psittacosaurus looked like in life has reached an absurd level that many would have thought impossible, which makes me wonder. . .

what other details are we overlooking? Many of the advances in paleontology come not from new fossils but from new ways of looking at fossils that already exist and new methodologies for answering old questions. Our third dinosaur is the Microraptor.

He's also Chinese and he's also from the Cretaceous, 130 million years old. This is a very well known dinosaur, with many fossils having been found, some of them even with their last meals preserved, like small fish and lizards. He's the size of a pigeon, and if a microraptor landed in front of you, you'd be forgiven for mistaking him for a crow.

But this crow would get weirder the more you look at it. Microraptor did not have a beak like modern birds, although it did coexist with beaked birds. It had small, needle-like teeth, which allowed it to prey on small animals such as amphibians, insects, small mammals and lizards.

Its wings had three sharp claws, as did its. . .

other pair of wings? The feet had the characteristic curved claw of dromaeosaur raptors, but were also covered in feathers in a similar fashion to the wings. This means that Microraptor had 4 functional wings, unlike any bird alive today.

And it also means that standing up, he looked like he was wearing cowboy pants. It also retained its long tail, a more dinosaurian than avian trait, but at the end of that tail, a rounded feather structure and two long feathers stood out. Microraptor most likely did not fly like modern birds, which use their huge breastbone to support powerful pectoral muscles that allow them to fly.

Despite having a larger sternum than fully terrestrial dromaeosaurs, it doesn't compare to birds that actually fly. Instead, microraptor would use its sharp claws on its hands to climb trees and then glide to a lower point. The rear wings could serve as a type of stabilizer, allowing it to be extremely precise and agile in the air.

This makes him more of a climbing, jumping and gliding animal than a flyer. He was very efficient at what he did, as it was a very common species in the forests at the time. But he wasn't at the top of the food chain, and was most likely prey to larger animals.

Avoiding the ground was a very smart move for Microraptor. In 2012, an article published in Science studied one of the most complete microraptor fossils to determine two things: The organization of feathers on the body and their colors. And he was very successful.

In that study it was revealed that he had two pairs of wings, not just one, and that the tip of his tail was most likely used as a sexual display. These two long feathers are common in modern birds, even though microraptor is not their ancestor. The colors, revealed by the shape, density, distribution and structure of the melanosomes, were similar to the feathers of a peacock or crow, with an iridescent effect in a black pattern distributed throughout the body.

This means that microraptor was black, but under sunlight, its feathers reflected a bluish glow that changed according to our point of view. A truly stunning animal. We might be led to think that Microraptor was an ancestor of birds, but he was not.

In fact, it descends from fully terrestrial raptor dromaeosaurs that also co-existed with the first primitive birds. Microraptor lived 30 to 40 million years after the common ancestor of dromaeosaurs and birds, and he may even have preyed on birds smaller than himself. At that time, birds were just another type of dinosaur, but the group we call true birds, the neornites, did not yet exist.

There were basal birds and many basal bird-like dinosaurs, including microraptor. This means that the microraptor lineage never evolved into an animal that could fly completely, and that it developed its ability to glide in a completely convergent way, that is, evolutionarily independent of birds. This may explain why he has 4 wings and birds have two, because it was simply another experiment with flight.

But it wasn't the strangest by far, because another lineage of dinosaurs such as Yi-Qi developed wings like bats, with long, webbed fingers, making it one of the weirdest dinosaurs known. The fourth animal on our list is said to be the best-preserved giant dinosaur ever found. Borealopelta, which means northern shield.

It was found by a team of miners in Alberta, Canada in 2011, but they had no idea what it was. It was not possible to see the animal, because it was trapped in a huge rounded rock, called concretion. Concretions form when chemicals expelled by the decomposition of an animal change the crystalline structure of the rock surrounding the organic mass, forming an iron-rich and very resistant rock: siderite.

The miners, together with the Royal Tyrell Museum, took 14 days to remove the rock from around the concretion, cover it with a protective material to try to get it out of the ground. When the concretion was being carefully lifted, it broke into several pieces. They didn't even know what they might have just lost, but the pieces were taken to the museum anyway.

Mark Michel, museum preparer dedicated six years of his life separating Borealopelta from the rock, cleaning the fossil thoroughly. His dedication was rewarded when he was honored with the scientific name of the animal: Borealopelta markmitchelli. What was revealed was more than fascinating: it was unique.

A giant dinosaur mummy, which looked disturbingly alive. A new species of Nodosaur, which lived in Canada 120 million years ago, also in the Cretaceous. Nodosaurs are closely related to ankylosaurs, but instead of a giant club at the end of their tails, they sported huge spikes that would make them formidable opponents.

In life, he was 5 meters long and could weigh up to 1300 kg. Interestingly, it was found preserved upside down in marine sediment! At that time in the Cretaceous, North America was crossed by an ocean that divided it in half.

Borealopelta was found over 200km away from the beach, which gives us a good idea of ​​how it might have fossilized. Somehow, Borealopelta died, still on land. Its carcass must have been carried away by a torrent, in the middle of a storm, to the ocean.

There, decomposition releases gases that inflate the body and make it float, something that is very common today. As the animal's back was very heavy, it floated on its back until it eventually exploded. Once it stopped floating, it plummeted into the marine sediment, sinking into a stagnant, oxygen-poor mud that preserved it for 120 million years.

The tail and paws were not preserved, but everything else was! This animal was completely covered by osteoderms, bone plates embedded in the skin, which made it a living tank. In addition to the bone of these thorns, the layer of keratin that coated it is preserved, giving us a good idea of ​​its true size in life.

Like many animal horns today, borealopelta had a bony center for the spines and a layer of keratin, like a fingernail, over the top, which made it much larger than just the bone would suggest. Furthermore, many patches of skin have been preserved, demonstrating that he had polygonal scales covering his entire body. An analysis of the skin's organic compounds revealed traces of Benzothiazole, a clear indicator of the presence of pheomelanin, the pigment that imparts reddish colors.

It was possible to notice that the largest thorn was very pigmented, with chances of even having been phosphorescent at the ends! Some of borealopelta's intestinal contents were also recovered, revealing that it fed mainly on creeping ferns, with an intriguing piece of charcoal having been swallowed, a sign that its last meal may have been in a place recently hit by fire. What little skin on the underside of the animal was preserved was lighter, indicating that it was counter-shaded, as were Sinosauropteryx and Psittacosaurus.

This is interesting because large animals of our time are uniformly colored, as they can dispense with camouflage with their size. The fact that Borealopelta camouflaged itself is an indicator that even it could be potential prey for super predators like Acrocanthosaurus. All of this would make living Borealopelta an unforgettable sight, and perhaps an unforgettable listen, as a recent study identified the fossilized larynx of an ankylosaur, Pinacosaurus.

This larynx appears to have similar abilities or the height of complexity of vocalization to birds such as parrots. So oddly enough, there's a chance that Borealopelta could talk, mimicking our sounds, if it lived today. Our fifth and last animal today is the only one that is not a dinosaur, but a pterosaur: Tupandactylus, which means finger of Tupã.

That's because, unlike birds, pterosaurs flew using a long membrane that extended from the legs to an extremely elongated fourth finger, which formed the wing. These animals on land were quadrupeds, as fossilized footprint fossils show. This pterosaur discovered in 1997 in Crato, Araripe basin, dates from the Cretaceous, having lived 112 million years ago.

Pterosaurs and dinosaurs are sister groups that shared their last common ancestor in the Triassic, about 250 million years ago. Together they form the avemetatarsalia group. Dinosaurs and pterosaurs coexisted throughout the Mesozoic, having become extinct along with non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago.

During their more than 180 million years of existence, they have diversified into many different groups: From the Ramphorynchids, with huge teeth and long tails, to the huge Azdharchids the size of giraffes, the small Anurognathids with frog mouths, the famous Pteranodontids, the strange anhanguerids and the extravagant tapejarids such as Tupandactylus. Tupandactylus imperator was a huge animal, with a wingspan of about 4 meters from wingtip to wingtip, and it was an efficient fisherman. Its body, like that of probably all pterosaurs, was covered with pycnofibers, small hair-like keratinous filaments.

It is uncertain whether pterosaur pycnofibers and dinosaur protofeathers are the same thing, inherited from an avemetatarsalian ancestor, this would place the origin of the structure that resulted in the feathers in the early Triassic or even the end of the Permian. But it is very possible that this is a convergent characteristic, that is, very similar, but independently developed by two or more groups. If true, something resembling fur arose at least three times in tetrapod evolution.

Given the incredible state of preservation of Tupandactylus, it was possible to identify small, very short, brown pycnofribes covering the animal's body almost like velvet. They extend across the face and stop at a keratinous beak that stands out, but surprisingly, even covers the crest. This crest is the most striking and most absurd feature of this animal.

It is formed by two bony projections in the shape of an "L" that supported between them a stretched and keratinous skin. This would make the skull surprisingly light for its size. The life function of these ridges is a huge debate, as it seems difficult to prove that they had any aerodynamic function.

But the colors of this animal can help reveal the reason for this crest. In 2019, a paper by Pinheiro's team did a chemical analysis of the Tupandactylus crest and revealed eumelanosomes and pheomelanossomes, indicating that the crest had a mottled pattern black and red. But a study published by Cary Woodruff of the University of Toronto in 2020 found traces that lead us to believe that the ridge could also be photoluminescent.

Photoluminescence is a phenomenon that exists in many animals, including fish, reptiles and birds, when the animal shines, reflecting UV light. Humans need special instruments to visualize these structures, but most animals do not. Light is an electromagnetic wave, and its spectrum is very broad.

What we call visible light is just a small snippet of the possible frequency of this wave. Many animals see beyond that, in the ultraviolet and infrared. For animals with this type of vision, Tupandactylus would be an extremely eye-catching light show.

This leads us to believe that perhaps this crest had a reproductive function, drawing the attention of potential females, an instrument of sexual display. As we can see, the colors of Tupandactylus have given us important insights into its vision, behavior, intelligence and crest function. And he is just the first of many animals that we will soon have a much clearer view of .

If Tupandactylus could return to the lands where he lived 112 million years later, he would certainly be noticed, and would make an unforgettable memory for anyone in his presence. In the last 10 years of research, we realized that the colors of dinosaurs and pterosaurs were much more vibrant than we could have ever imagined. These 5 animals were incredible, but even so, many wonder: “In a world with so many problems, why spend so much time, effort and money to discover the color of an extinct animal?

” Is all paleontology an effort at banality? I understand where this is coming from, but this only sees one side of reality. Paleontology has MANY practical applications.

We live in a civilization that uses the burning of fossil fuels for energy. It profoundly impacts politics, the economy and our daily lives. Without understanding the history of the past in our world, it is impossible to think about the future.

But our fascination with dinosaurs is not about that. It's not as practical, it's deeper. In movies, series and literature, we are enchanted by fantastic universes where there is magic, technology beyond our comprehension and all kinds of fantasy are possible.

It's easy to get disappointed in the real world, but in the real world, evolution is magic. Biodiversity, living and extinct, is the great spectacle of nature. The fact that everything that lives on planet Earth today has been sculpted by time through countless rounds of life and death over trillions of generations is as wonderful and awe-inspiring as it is disturbing and cruel.

Life is short and death is permanent, but if you are alive today, thank the countless ancestors who have defied nature each and every day since the origin of life. Imagine the amount of pain, sacrifice, love and care involved in carrying your genes in an unbroken living stream for 4 billion years. We like to create monsters and entities, but we live in the same world as trilobites, dinosaurs, abyssal creatures and whales.

Our world is as incredible, psychedelic and impressive as any magical universe, but we don't feel that way, because we are trapped in a boring and repetitive routine, in which everything becomes banal and uninteresting. We lose touch with reality that way. But the good news is that there are many ways to reconnect with that feeling of inspiration and wonder.

Knowing the colors of an animal that has not lived for hundreds of millions of years is one of them. RODOLFO: Art applied to science is the only way to see Earth's extinct past. We must then extract as much information as possible from the fossil record and what is not there we can infer by observing current animals and their life habits.

This way we can have a clearer, less wrong view, a more accurate guess of what these beings lost in time were like. We will never find all the fossils. We only have the chance to access some that are closer to the surface, being destroyed by erosion every day.

Many of these creatures and stories will never have a name, and will remain forever forgotten by time. But other beings were resurrected by our imagination. Think about it: we are the first generation of living beings to see something this close to a psittacosaurus in over 100 million years.

He is not alive in flesh and blood, but he was very little different from that depiction. So feel privileged. This video was based on two books by Michael Benton, “Dinosaurs: New visions of a lost world” and “The Dinosaurs rediscovered” two amazing works for anyone interested in paleontology.

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