French and American Revolutions: Enlightenment to Napoleon - A Complete Overview

this will be our double-sized grand finale episode of our early modern Mega documentary we will be picking up where our episodes on the age of Discovery and early modern Europe ended so watch those first if you'd like more context our main focus for this final episode will be revolutions though the most famous are probably The American or French revolutions intellectual revolutions also occurred like the enlightenment but this had it origins in a slightly earlier movement a revolution of science beginning still during the later part of the Renaissance it challenged the dominant methods of thinking about

the natural world philosophers had used works by Aristotle and TMI one of the greatest astronomers of the classical era combined with their own beliefs to form the geocentric theory of the universe in this Theory also known as the toic system earth is the stationary center of the Universe with all celestial objects including the Sun Moon planets and stars revolving around it in circular or epicycle motions the model consisted of nine or 10 spheres the first seven representing the sun moon and visible planets up to Saturn beyond that was a sphere which held the stars and

constellations which moved east to west across the night sky the aist sphere was called the prime mover and was responsible for setting all the other spheres into motion yet further Beyond was the empire in heaven where lived the Christian God and the souls that achieved salvation in 1543 Nicholas kernus a Polish polymar published his seminal work on the Revolutions of the celestial spheres kernus proposed that it was the Sun not the Earth which was the center of the solar system this heliocentric idea was revolutionary at the time as it challenged both the prevailing toic geocentric

model and the theological viewpoints that aligned with a geocentric Universe cernus was well educated having studied at various universities in Poland and Italy where he was exposed to astronomy mathematics and the works of classical authors he was particularly influenced by the writings of ancient Greek philosophers and astronomers like aristatus of Samos who had proposed a heliocentric system kernus found the geocentric model with its complex system of epicycles and deference unsatisfactory cumbersome and inelegant it also struggled to accurately predict planetary positions and celestial events although cernus did not have access to a telescope which was invented

later he made meticulous observations using the instruments available at the time his observations coupled with his mathematical calculations led him to conclude that many of the complexities of the geocentric model could be resolved with a heliocentric system though he was not the first to conceive a heliocentric Universe he was the first in the Western World to develop a comprehensive mathematical model that explained planetary observations more simply than the geocentric model his systems still use circular orbits and epicycles like to L's model but did away with many of the complexities required by a geocentric system further

building on the model German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler arrived at the three laws of planetary motion which confirmed and refined the heliocentric theory by proposed elliptical orbits rather than circular in the early 1600s the next breakthrough was made by an Italian teacher of mathematics Galileo galile he was one of the first to look to the heavens and denote his observations with a new invention the telescope Galileo discovered the large moons of Jupiter now known as the Galilean moons he also observed sunspots demonstrating that the sun was not a perfect unchanging body he also observed

the rough and crated surface of the Moon challenging the Aristotelian belief in the Perfection of celestial bodies the world beyond Earth wasn't an ethereal realm but just more of the same substance Galileo's support for the heliocentric model brought him into conflict with the Catholic Church which held to the geocentric view based on certain scriptural interpretations in 1632 after publishing dialogue concerning the Two Chief World Systems which defended the heliocentric model Galileo was Tried by the Inquisition and found vehemently suspect of heresy he was forced to recant his views and spent the rest of his life

under house arrest today he is considered the father of modern observational astronomy the Scientific Revolution culminated in the late 1600s with an Englishman who brought together the ideas of the Polish Copernicus German Kepler and Italian Galileo this was Isaac Newton and standing on the shoulders of his predecessors would come to synthesize their knowledge and become one of the most infuential scientists of all time in his work principia he formulates his laws of motion and universal gravitation he not only defined the laws that governed the planetary bodies but also Earth and everything on it central to

this was the explanation at the basis of the heliocentric model the elliptical orbits and why planets don't just fly off in different directions the universal law of gravitation because all objects had a certain gravity and were attracted to each other the universe became seen as one large machine this conception of the universe often referred to as the Newtonian World machine or simply the Clockwork universe is rooted in the idea that the universe is like a vast and deterministic machine that operates predictably and consistently based on a set of universal laws this idea is fundamentally tied

to Newton's laws of motion and un ival gravitation this worldview came to dominate Academia until the 20th century when Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics uncovered more answers and more questions France joined in as well as French philosopher Renee dayart offered a newer system of thought based on doubt he began by systematically doubting everything he could possibly doubt like sensory information and even the existence of the physical world to establish what could be known with absolute certainty he arrived at the conclusion that while he could doubt the existence of everything else

he could not doubt the fact that he was thinking this led to his formation of one of the most recognized sayings in philosophy kogito ergosum or I think therefore I am since he could be certain he was thinking he could be certain he existed he separated the Mind from the material world in what is called cartisian dualism for dayart the mind is non-physical and is the seat of Consciousness and rationality its substance is immaterial and indivisible it's the thinking thing or res cogitans and is characterized by its ability to doubt understand affirm deny want sense

and imagine the body in contrast is material and occupies space it operates in the Physical Realm and can be divided measured and described in terms of its extension or res extensor extended thing it's subject to the mechanical laws of nature deart is still one of the most influential philosophers and has been called the father of modern rationalism later another intellectual movement would occur it built on ideas from the Scientific Revolution applying reason and rationality in fields other than science this period from the mid 1600s to around 1800 has been called an age of Illumination an

age of enlightenment reason and progress became the order of the Day based on Isaac Newton's view of the world machine it was thought that natural laws could be discovered for all facets of life like in politics economics or religion one of the most most important Enlightenment thinkers was John Loch in his work of an essay concerning human understanding Loch proposed the idea of the Mind as a tabular rasser or blank slate he argued that humans are born without innate ideas and that knowledge is determined by experience derived from sense perceptions this stance positioned him against

the views of philosophers like dayart who believed in innate ideas as people were molded by their surroundings environments could in theory be changed to create a more enlightened Society one of Lo's most influential works the two treatises of government was published anonymously in 1689 in it LO refuted the idea of the divine right of kings and proposed instead that political Authority is rooted in the consent of the governed he argued for a social contract wherein individuals give up some freedoms to a government in exchange for the prot protection of their natural rights the great thinkers

of this time were collectively called philosop though they were not all French nor were the all philosophers early Enlightenment thinkers came from Germany and England most likely out of the chaos of the mid 1600s in their respective States but it was France which produced some of the most influential Minds from this era a response to the truly absolutist rule of Louis the 14th three of the most notable Enlightenment thinkers are Montes Volta and D Montes argued for the separation of powers which later significantly influenced the framers of the United States Constitution Montes warned against despotism

and stressed the importance of checks and balances in a government to prevent any one branch from Gaining absolute power Vol was a sharp critic of organized religion especially the Catholic Church though he often expressed Express deist beliefs viewing the Creator through the lens of Newton's World machine he remained an advocate for freedom of speech freedom of religion and a strong critic of corrupt institutions intolerance and Injustice the French philosopher praised the religious tolerance he observed in England and contrasted it with the less tolerant institutions of his home country Enlightenment thinkers didn't always have to be

political though Dido is perhaps best known as the chief editor and a significant contributor to the ony clope an ambitious project that aimed to catalog and disseminate all human knowledge all three of these figures Montes with his political theories voler with his wit and advocacy for freedom and Justice anded with his commitment to disseminating knowledge played crucial roles in shaping Enlightenment thought and by extension the modern world they exemplify the period of the mid 1700s what has been called the high Enlightenment with the belief that natural law applied everywhere the philosoph began trying to apply

these laws in all aspects of life like economics and politics and how these in turn governed human beings and Society the social sciences one of these was economics the discipline of modern economics has in part been attributed to Adam Smith who based his ideas on individuals being able to pursue their own economic self-interest if the state leaves individuals alone a system called l a fair all individuals in theory should be able to benefit The Wealth of Nations is Smith's most famous work and it laid the foundational concepts for classical economics he also argued against mercantilism

the prevailing economic theory of the time which held that a nation's gain was another's loss Smith instead argued that trade could be mutually beneficial Smith did see roles for government in areas like defense Justice and certain Public Works John Jack Russo a genevan philosopher was active during the high Enlightenment period the social contract emphasized popular sovereignty and the general will of the people as opposed to absolute monarchy his discourse on inequality argued that private property was the basis of inequality his novels ail or on education presented a new view on education and human nature arguing

that education shouldn't restrict a child's Natural Instincts Russo also viewed women as naturally different from men and that they were to be educated in roles as wives and mothers or nurturing an obedience while this type of thinking was common women still made great strides during the Enlightenment Maria VLAN made significant cont contributions to astronomy most famously discovering a comet in 1702 but because of the biases of her time her husband gotfried Kish a well-known astronomer was initially credited with the discovery she was not allowed to attend University or join the Berlin Academy but still managed

to publish her findings under her husband's name but women's right soon Advanced through Mary Wilston craft whose work laid foundational ideas for both fism and women's rights movements a Vindication of the rights of woman is her most renowned work she contended that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagined a social order founded on reason this meant giving women the same educational opportunities as men in order to better teach their children and be a better companion and friend to their husband instead of merely domestic caretaker wolston craft later married the philosopher

William Godwin one of the forefathers of the anarchist movement she died shortly after giving birth to their daughter Mary Godwin who would later become Mary shell the author of what is often regarded as the first science fiction novel Frankenstein with the enlightenment came cultural change we discussed how the Barack style emerged in an earlier episode but by the early 1700s a newer art style spread throughout Europe this was roko derived from the French word roai meaning Rock and shell Garden ornamentation the movement began in France and primarily remained a French style although it did influence

other European countries it is characterized by lightness Elegance playfulness and an emphasis on asymmetrical designs curved forms and detailed ornamentation roko used soft pastels and creamy tones creating a lighter and more delicate visual impression the subject matter is often more frivolous and focuses on love nature and playful scenes as contrasted with the grander and heroic element of the Barack style it also depicted aristocratic life and Leisure antoan W was a French painter who played a crucial role in defining the Roco style in the early 18th century his Works characterized by their arm elegance and delicate

color palet Mark a departure from the Grandeur and formality of Barack art and pave the way for the more playful and intimate roko style W is particularly known for pioneering the genre of fet gallart which depicted scenes of courtly parties picnics and other social gatherings in dreamlike pastural settings these scenes are often infused with a sense of nostalgia and Melancholy ironically because of of rok's Grace and ease decorative roko Works were often easily placed in Barack buildings balasanyan was a prominent German architect and military artillery engineer of the Barack and roko eras he is best

known for his contributions to the design of churches palaces and Residences which showcase the ornate Splendor of the time his structures are renowned for their sophisticated form elegant interiors and elaborate decorative elements one of nyman's most famous works is the verberg residence in Bavaria Germany the enlightenment had a profound impact on European nobility and state development political order came to include a series of natural rights including equality before the law right to property and freedom of the press among others but though these ideals limited the power of government a ruler was still needed to preserve

these natural rights rights the philosop believed that rulers themselves should be enlightened this led to the Advent of a new type of monarchy called enlightened despotism or enlightened absolutism the Monarch took on a parental role acting in the best interests of their population the rights of rulers were no longer given by a Divine Source but by the people the most prolific of these enlightened monarchs were from Prussia Austria and Russia we last left these three states at the end of our episode on early modern Europe over in Russia after the death of Peter the Great

in 1725 the throne witnessed a series of rulers some of whom had very short Reigns Katherine I Peter the Great second wife and former handmaiden became Empress after his death her Reign was relatively short and during her time on the throne much of the actual power was held by the Supreme priv Council Peter II grandson of Peter the Great was only a child when he began his Reign but died of small pox at the age of just 14 Anna aanova daughter of Peter the Great's half brother Ivan was initially expected to be a puppet ruler

with limited powers but she managed to abolish the Supreme privy Council and Rule autocratically her Reign saw the influence of her German lover Ern Johan Byron and was marked by extravagance and some Notorious episodes such as the tale of the Ice Palace this structure was entirely made of ice blocks complete with ice Furniture an ice elephant and other ice sculptures it was an architectural Marvel of its time demonstrating the skill of Russian artisans in ice construction but it's better remembered for the Grim event associated with it Anna ionova used the ice palace as the setting

for a cruel Gest she ordered a mock w wedding between two of her Court jesters one was known to have displeased the empress and this event was both a punishment and a form of entertainment the couple was paraded through the city in a cage on an elephant dressed in clownish deliberately humiliating costumes as the climax of the event they were forced to spend the night in the ice palace in Sub-Zero temperatures it said that a special bed also made of ice was prepared for them to to ensure their compliance Anna had a guard posted surprisingly

both survived the night allegedly by bribing the guard to bring them warm fur coats the next Monarch Ivan v 6 was proclaimed Emperor as an infant but his Reign was extremely brief his mother Anna leopoldovna who acted as Regent was not popular and a c soon dethroned Ivan he spent the rest of his life imprisoned and was later killed by by his jailers it was Elizabeth petrona daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine who seized the throne from Ivan in a bloodless coup and became Empress her Reign is generally seen as a period of relative

stability and prosperity for Russia Elizabeth refrained from executing anyone for State crimes during her Reign a notable contrast to some of her predecessors and successors she was also responsible for significant cultural advancements and the foundation of the University of Moscow after Elizabeth's Death Peter III ascended to the throne but his Reign would last only a matter of months Peter made a series of decisions that were unpopular with certain factions of the Russian military and nobility his wife Catherine with the support of these factions orchestrated a coup that resulted in Peter's abdication and subsequent mysterious death

allowing her to become the empress C Catherine II then brought back stability ruling from 1762 to 1796 marking her place as one of the enlightened despots of the late 1700s and one of the most notable Reigns in Russian history her Reign is considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire marked by territorial expansion domestic reforms and a flourishing of arts and culture giving her the title of Catherine the Great Katherine aimed to expand Russian influence in the Black Sea region and the balcans at the expense of the weakening Ottoman Empire there were two major Russo

Turkish wars during her Reign Catherine was a patron of the Arts literature and education she corresponded with many Enlightenment thinkers like voler and ditro and expanded the collections of the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg Catherine's Reign wasn't without domestic Strife the most significant challenge was pugachev's Rebellion a widespread revolt against serfdom and oppressive governance the Revolt was eventually suppressed and pugachev tortured and executed but it underscored the tensions in Russian society and even made Catherine more antagonistic to the peasantry while Catherine considered enlightened principles she also expanded the institution of surom in Russia tying peasant

more firmly to the land and their landlords Catherine the Great's Reign left an IND mark on Russian history she transformed the nation into a major European power engaged with the enlightenment though selectively and left a cultural Legacy that's evident in Russia to this day however her Reign also deepened the Divide between the ruling Elite and the peasantry setting the stage for social tensions that would play out in the centuries that followed in Prussia which elevated itself to a kingdom under Frederick the his son Frederick William became king in Prussia in 17113 known as the soldier

King Frederick William was a stark contrast to his father he is best known for his military and administrative reforms establishing Prussia as an efficient and militarized state he significantly expanded the Prussian Army and made it one of the finest in Europe albeit a great economic cost his reforms laid the groundwork for prussia's later military successes most notably under his son Frederick II who ruled from 1740 to 1786 Frederick who became known as Frederick the great was one of the most educated and intelligent rulers of All European rulers during the 1700s and is often cited as

one of the quintessential examples of an enlightened Monarch prominent Enlightenment thinker volair was even invited to live with him in Prussia for many years he initiated reform for religious tolerance the legal system and expanded the military even as he introduced reforms Frederick was pragmatic and did not challenge the social order fundamentally he did not emancipate the Surfs or drastically reduce the Privileges of the nobility recognizing their importance to the Prussian military system the Army was increased to 200,000 troops and Prussia became synonymous with an exceptional military while Frederick the great was undoubtedly influenced by the

Enlightenment and introduced many reforms enlightened absolutism was still fittingly absolute his primary interests were the power Prestige and territorial expansion of Prussia over in Austria we had last left Leopold the first after his involvement in the war with the Ottomans and the war of Spanish succession Joseph I Leopold's eldest son became emperor upon his father's death his Reign although brief was marked by continued military and diplomatic engagements Charles I 6 succeeded his brother Joseph his Reign saw the end of the austr Turkish War which resulted in significant territorial gains for the habsburgs in the borans

like his predecessors Charles was a patron of the Arts he is particularly noted for his patronage of music including the composer yo and Sebastian bark but his Reign was mostly dominated by concerns over succession and the future of the Habsburg Dynasty this powerful ruler of the vast Habsburg Empire had no male heirs determined to secure his daughter Maria Teresa's right to succeed him he issued the pragmatic sanction a Royal Decree recognized by most European powers but when Charles I 6 died in 1740 the Inc on those diplom Matic agreement was barely dry Maria Teresa ascended

to the throne facing immediate challenges to her rule Europe's Powers seeing an opportunity in a realm ruled by a young woman began to question her legitimacy several European States saw the Habsburg succession as an opportunity to expand their territories or to shift the balance of power in Europe the first to act was Frederick the great of Prussia buying the Rich province of silia he invaded setting off a chain of events that plunged Europe into war this was to be the war of the Austrian succession this major conflict grew to engulf areas all over the Holy

Roman Empire the low countries and Italy Maria Teresa's position initially seemed dire with Bohemia being occupied by Bavaria and the title of Holy Roman Emperor going to Charles Albert of Bavaria as Charles iith in 17 42 the wars are a complex set of Shifting alliances the main factions on Austria's side were Great Britain and the Dutch while Prussia was supported by longtime Habsburg rivals in France along with bourbon Spain and Bavaria who attempted to begin a new line of Emperors after the habsburgs the war wasn't confined to Central Europe the conflict spilled over into the

Italian Peninsula the low countries and even the colonies a story we'll get to later on in this episode The War of the Austrian succession concluded with the Treaty of EXL Chappelle in 1748 the terms of the piece were that Maria Teresa's right to rule her dominions was recognized but Prussia officially got to retain most of silia all other territories occupied during the war were returned to their pre-war status Charles Albert's son who became elector of Bavaria after his father's death death renounced his claims to the Austrian succession during Maria Teresa's Reign she initiated numerous reforms

that centralized power for the habsburgs Maria Theresa was personally conservative particularly in her religious views she did not Champion the broad religious tolerance that some other enlightened despots promoted in fact she was notably intolerant of protestantism and Judaism her marriage to Francis Duke of Reign allowed him to become crowned Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I first in 1745 this Union effectively merged the house of Habsburg one of Europe's most influential Royal houses with the house of Lorraine while Maria's Reign introduced several reforms that were in line with Enlightenment ideals her personal conservatism and religious views

meant that she is not as clear-cut an example of an enlightened despot as her son Joseph Joseph II became emperor in 1765 but ruled alongside his mother until her death in 1780 as the son of Maria Teresa and Francis I he was the first Austrian ruler from the combined House of Habsburg Lorraine he's often characterized as one of the most radical enlightened absolutists of his era he shared little with his more conservative mother going ahead and abolishing surf him he also established state-run hospitals reduced the power of the church in medical Affairs and revamped the

education system to be more secular and centralized Joseph aimed for uniformity in administration and law initiating the codification of laws with the goal of establishing a centralized legal system emphasizing religious tolerance he issued the edict of Tolerance in 1781 granting certain rights to non-catholic Christians living in the Habsburg dominions this was followed by the Toleration patent which expanded those religious freedoms he also reduced the influence of the Catholic church in matters of state and education and dissolved many monastic orders that he deemed unproductive his reforms were considered too radical though and he displeased the nobility

by freeing the Surfs and alienated the church with his religious tolerance and limits to their influence after his death many of his reforms were rolled back under the rule of his brother and successor Leopold II this period of reversal is often called the reaction one of the most significant geopolitical Maneuvers during this period was the series of partitions of Poland between 1772 and 1795 Russia Prussia and Austria participated in three separate partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth effectively wiping Poland off the map it would not be reestablished until 1918 preia seizure of the wealthy province

of silia made it clear that they were now arrival to Austrian dominance within the Holy Roman Empire Britain primarily a naval and colonial power was mainly concerned about France's overseas Ambitions the rising threat of Prussia in Continental Europe was of less concern to the British thus they saw an alignment with Prussia as a way to keep France occupied in Europe thereby limiting French challenges to British overseas interests Maria Theresa of Austria had never reconciled with the loss of silia to Prussia wishing to regain the territory and realizing the need for strong allies Austria began to

look towards traditional rival France for support France traditionally allied with Prussia was now aligned with Austria while Britain traditionally aligned with Austria was now partnered with Prussia Russia these new alliances became known as The Diplomatic revolution of 1756 but the stage was set for the 7 years war though Enlightenment ideals condemned it Europe engaged in its most dramatic conflict of the 18th century Austria France along with Russia would face off against Britain and Prussia The War Began with Prussia surprise invasion of Saxony in 1756 Frederick the great quickly occupied Saxony and then moved into Bohemia

in 1757 Frederick defeated the austrians at the Battle of Prague but his subsequent Siege of the city failed later that year he was defeated at the Battle of Colin and was forced to retreat from Bohemia Sweden declared war on Prussia in 1757 and began a campaign in Pomerania in 1758 though they achieved limited success the Russian army began its campaigns against East Prussia in 1758 the Russians defeated the prussians at the Battle of zorf but the battle was so costly for both sides that neither could follow up on their respective advantages the key battle in

this phase was the Battle of rosspark in 1757 where Frederick spectacularly defeated the combined French and Austrian forces in 1758 the austrians tried trying to reclaim silicia were defeated at the Battle of hotch though Frederick was forced to retreat afterward in 1759 the Russian and Austrian Army won a decisive victory at the Battle of kisdorf the worst defeat of Frederick's Korea by 1761 Prussia was under extreme pressure the Russians occupied Berlin temporarily and the austrians continued to press in silia but in 176 2 a sudden turn of events favored Prussia the Russian Empress Elizabeth died

and her successor Peter III admired Frederick the great Russia made peace and even became a brief Ally to Prussia this change coupled with the ongoing drain of resources and Manpower led to a general desire for peace among the European States the war ended with the Treaty of Paris between Great Britain France Spain and Portugal and the Treaty of hubertusburg between Prussia and the habsburgs this marked the beginnings of a century of rivalry as the Prussian lion and Austrian elephant menacingly encircled one another despite the vast scale of the conflict and the significant territorial exchanges in

other theaters the European borders essentially returned to the status quo and Prussia retained its control over CIA in the end the seven years war in Europe confirmed the rise of Prussia as a major European power and highlighted the military Genius of Frederick the great as he managed to resist the combined might of several larger Powers this war touched the European colonies as well with the Treaty of Paris the French abandoned the lucrative trade in India to the British but the greatest conflicts outside of Europe occurred in North America where lay significant French and British colonies

we last visited the Americas during our age of Discovery episode where we mostly went over the Spanish and Portuguese colonies but only touched on French and English Explorations after Jac Cartier laid claim to Canada as a French possession Samuel de Champlain established a settlement in 16008 at Quebec France wouldn't take interest in the colonies though until 1663 when Canada became property of the French crown and was appointed a governor like other French provinces France first claimed the vast territory of Louisiana in the late 17th century the claim was a result of early exploration by Rober

Cavalier who traveled down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico in 1682 at the river's mouth he conducted a ceremony to claim the entire Mississippi River basin for France naming it Louisiana in honor of King Louis I 14th but Louisiana would remain sparsely populated by colonists trading in Furs became a lucrative business and the French established a series of trading posts throughout the great lakes and the Mississippi River Valley the French often had more Cooperative relations with Native American societies as compared to the English and Dutch promoting intermarriage and integration the French English and

Dutch would engage in a series of colonial wars throughout the 1600s for the French they became caught up in wars that began as a result of competition between native societies for dominance in the fur trade in this region many of these were of the Eastern Woodlands a cultural area you can find out more about in our video about the ancient Americas the iqua Confederacy or hoden ooni was a powerful Alliance originally of five tribes the iqua sought to expand their territory to gain more access to animals especially beavers which were were heavily hunted for their

pelts and monopolized the fur trade with European markets their Rivals were societies like the hurin algonkin and others from the Great Lakes European demand for beaver pelts used to make felt hats and other goods made control of this trade economically lucrative for whichever natives took advantage in 1609 Samuel the Champlain and his huran and algonkin allies fought against the mohk HW near Lake Champlain establishing early French opposition to the hoden noi by the 1640s the hoden nooni were launching devastating raids on the hurin and others from the region displacing thousands and cementing their dominance in

1689 the native Confederacy attacked the settlement of Leen on Montreal Island burning it and killing most of the settlers the hoden nooni succeeded in dispersing or assimilating several tribes in the region but by the end of the wars their power began to wne as they faced increased pressure from European colonists and other native tribes the wars concluded with the signing of the great peace of Montreal in 1701 where the hoden ooni agreed to a peace treaty with the French and 39 other indigenous Nations the beaver Wars also played a role in that which decimated Native

American populations the spread of European diseases often overlooked we should also share a moment of silence for the beaver who didn't ask for any of this populations of beaver were all but wiped out and it took hundreds of years for them to recover while some areas lost them forever those settler populations Rose slowly in New France its territory reached its peak in 1712 and consisted of five distinct colonies the Dutch weren't around as long but the settlers of New Netherland under director General Willam ke came into conflict with several Native American tribes primarily the lenar

strains arose from the Dutch expansion misunderstandings and increasing demands the Dutch made on the Lenape the immediate spark was kei's decision to tax the native population and his orders to attack Lenape camps following the orders of Governor keed Dutch soldiers launched a nighttime attack on a lenar encampment and what followed could only be described as a massacre this event led to retaliatory raids by the Lenape and their allies causing widespread violence and disruption in the region the war culminated in a significant loss of life particularly for the lenar it ended with a tentative peace agreement

but the tensions paved the way for further Dutch Native American conflicts in subsequent years William Keith's decisions during the conflict were controversial and he was later recalled to the nether due to his handling of the situation and by 1664 the English had taken the colony of New Netherland from the Dutch renaming it New York by the mid 1600s the English had set up numerous colonies all along the coast some related to the practice of religion While others were based on economic or business interests these became 13 colonies and were grouped into three different regions New

England was in the North the middle colonies here and the southern colonies furthest south each of these regions had notable conflicts with Native populations in the southern colonies the first to be founded was Virginia in 16007 founded by the London company later called the Virginia Company Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas and was primarily an economic Venture Maryland was founded by Lord Baltimore in 1634 as a Haven for English Catholics facing religious persecution in England Carolina named after the ill-fated King Charles I was settled largely by Virginians in 1653 seeking new

land for plantations it became an official colony in [Music] 1663 it split into North and South Carolina in 1712 Georgia the last of the 13 colonies was founded by James oglethorp in 1732 it was initially a place for dettor and poor individuals from England and a buffer zone against Spanish Florida since the Virginia colony was founded so early on it faced the earliest push back English expansion into power tan territories and competition for resources led to early skirmishes and the first of three Wars with the power tan Confederacy in 1610 after a particularly harsh winter

known as The Starving Time Lord Delaware arrived in Jamestown with military reinforcements and launched a series of attacks on power Town communities burning Villages and crops the war ended with a period of relative peace symbolized by the marriage of Pocahontas a power tan woman to John rol an English settler in 1614 but the English continued their encroachment on power toan lands leading to a second war the War Began in 1622 with a surprise attack organized by Chief opic anano Pocahontas's Uncle the attack targeted English settlements and resulted in the deaths of about a quarter of

the English colonists in retaliation the English launched several punitive Expeditions an uneasy truce was established in 1632 but tensions remained high with the English continu to expand and solidify their settlements Chief opich aneno despite being elderly organized another coordinated series of attacks on English settlements in 1644 the attacks resulted in the deaths of several hundred colonists once again the English responded with retaliatory attacks this time opian Cano was captured and killed by an English guard the Treaty of 1646 formerly ended the conflict marking the end of the patan confederacy's organized resistance to English expansion the

treaty also established boundaries between English and power Town lands although these boundaries were still gradually encroached upon by the English during the 1670s there was still more unrest in the Virginia colony at Jamestown but this time it came from within often the victims of raids settlers became frustrated with Governor William burk's reluctance to drive the natives out of Virginia they felt that the governor and the rest of his wealthy Administration kept the natives around to maximize trade opportunities dissatisfied a merchant named Nathaniel Bacon LED thousands of Virginians from all walks of life small Planters Merchants

indentured servants and African slaves in an uprising against Berkeley in [Music] 1676 the they chased him out of Jamestown as they burned it to the ground bacon died of dentry soon after and by 1677 the rebellion was quelled by the colonial Elite alarmed by the alliance of merchants servants African laborers and slaves they instituted the Virginia slave codes of 1705 to reinforce racial divisions and prevent similar uprisings they came to rely Less on European indentured servants and more on import African slaves heading north we get to the middle colonies New York was originally settled by

the Dutch in 1626 as New Netherland and included New Amsterdam it was captured by the English In 1664 and renamed after the Duke of York as New York New Jersey was originally part of New Netherland and was taken by the English and split into East and West Jersey eventually uniting as a single Royal Colony Delaware was initially a Swedish colony and Trading Post set up in 1638 named New Sweden it fell under Dutch and then English control and was eventually governed as part of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn in 1682 as a Quaker

Colony based on principles of religious tolerance and good relations with Native Americans most of the major Colonial conflicts were conducted earlier by the Dutch in this region still heading further north we get to the New England colonies Massachusetts was initially settled by the pilgrims in 1620 at Plymouth who were seeking religious freedom the Massachusetts Bay Colony was later established by Puritans in 1630 also seeking to practice their religion freely New Hampshire was established in 1623 by John Mason and others for fishing and trade it was originally a part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony but later

became a separate Colony Conneticut was initially settled in 1636 by people from Massachusetts seeking more land and political Freedom Thomas Hooker led many of the early settlers Rhode Island was also established in 1636 by Roger Williams after he was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony for his religious views it was founded on principles of complete religious tolerance one notable conflict in this region and also the first of large scale was the Peart War which resulted in the near destruction of the Peart tribe an alliance of New England colonies defeated the peat at the Great Swamp fight

leading to the dissolution of the native people one of the most devastating conflicts in American Colonial history both in terms of its sheer violence and its long-term impact on on Native American communities occurred later in New England this was King Philip's War tensions flared after the execution of three wampanoags by the English for the murder of a Christian Native American leading to a spiral of retaliatory violence The War Began with raids on Colonial settlements and spread rapidly throughout New England by a coalition of Native Americans led by metacomet metacomet was known to the English as

king Phillip giving the war its name the fighting was characterized by Guerilla Warfare tactics with Native American forces often utilizing hitandrun strategies notable events included the siege of Brookfield the Great Swamp fight a significant Colonial Victory and the eventual capture and killing of metacom in 1676 numerous atrocities were committed by both sides with civilian populations frequently targeted in the end it was a devastating defeat for the Native American tribes of New England many Native Americans were killed in battle While others succumbed to starvation or disease King Philip's War in terms of the percentage of the

population killed remains one of the deadliest Wars in American history the war marked the end of a relatively peaceful era of coexistence between the English settlers and the Native American tribes in New England it set the stage for future policies and attitudes of English settlers towards Native Americans which were characterized by mistrust the Swedish who had a small colony during the mid 1600s were the only ones with no documented hostility with Native populations but both Sweden and the Netherlands found themselves without any Mainland colonies by the mid 1600s and it was the English and French

who became the main European rivals on the continent during the late 1660s as Affairs soured in Europe so too did it come to affect the colonies from the late 1600s into the mid 1700s Europe was caught up in four major Wars two of these the war of the Grand Alliance and War of Spanish succession we've covered in our episode on early modern Europe while the war of Austrian succession and 7 years war were covered in this current episode but each had profound effects on the colonies causing conflict in North America that mirrored that of Europe

instead of fighting those of the Eastern Woodlands the British and French settlers fought each other more directly with support from the natives the war of the Grand Alliance was a major European conflict that pitted Louis the 14th of France against a coalition of European nations including England Spain the Holy Roman Empire and others the Grand Alliance was formed in response to French aggression and territorial Ambitions in Europe in North America fighting began during the culmination of the previous Beaver Wars and was centered on control of the fur trade the war was named King Williams war

in honor of King William III of England who had taken the throne in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution and was one of the main European opponents of Louis I 14th during the war of the Grand Alliance it was for in many different theaters in retaliation for the iqua raid on lein which we mentioned earlier the French and their allies in the wabanaki Confederacy algonkin and kowak raided settlements in New England and Upstate New York in 1690 French and Native American forces attacked the village of shenek in New York burning it and killing many of its

inhabitants what is known as the shenek massacre so the English colonies planned a full invasion of New France along the coast New England scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Port Royal against the Acadian colony of New France though the Acadian surrendered with Little Resistance the new englanders violent plunder afterwards soured relations with the local residents they later attempted an ambitious attack on Quebec City itself the capital but governor general Frac had heard of the fall of Port Royal and was prepared he famously rejected a premature surrender and let Quebec's defenses speak for themselves

under a storm of cannon fire and aid from local militias the French successfully repelled the English deep in Northern Canada fighting was much more small scale as the French and English battled over the York Factory at the Battle of Hudson's Bay the French were on the verge of losing their single sinking warship when a final broadside attack Det ated the English ship's powder kegs blowing it apart King William's War and the war of the Grand Alliance ended with the Treaty of risewick in 1697 which restored states to their pre-war territories but did little to resolve

the colonial disputes the next war came just a few years later with the war of Spanish succession Louis the 14th of France wanted to place his grandson Philip of anju on the Spanish Throne which would have up set the balance of power in Europe in response a coalition of European nations including England Austria the Dutch Republic and several other states opposed French Ambitions in North America the conflict looked very much like the previous war although the iray or hodin nooni played a more neutral role the war was named Queen answ in recognition of the Queen

of England and later Great Britain as the Spanish were allied with the French fighting wasn't just contained to the north but spread into the southern colonies who were within Striking Distance of Spanish Florida in 1702 English Colonial forces from the province of Carolina attempted but failed to capture the Spanish fort at St Augustine in Florida in New England raids were conducted by French and Native American forces in 1704 one of the most significant was the attack on the Massachusetts Bay settlement of Deerfield in 1710 English forces managed to capture Port Royal once again a key

French stronghold in Acadia this effectively gave the English control over Acadia which they renamed Nova Scotia the war concluded with the signing of the Treaty of utre in 17713 this was more significant than the last as France seeded New Finland Acadia and its claims to the Hudson Bay Region to Britain this left New France with an undercontrolled Louisiana and the region around the St Lawrence River Canada a few decades later the war of Austrian succession broke out in Europe and hostilities between English and French continued in North America the war was named King George's War

after King George II of Great Britain who reigned during this period the French retained their allies in the banaki and the hoden ooni supported the British in 1745 in a significant Expedition New England Colonial forces with a fleet of British royal Navy ships captured the French Fortress of Lewisburg on Cape brong Island this victory was a major morale boost for the British colonists the war in North America concluded as part of the broader peace settlement with the Treaty of exael in 1748 the treaty returned Lewisburg to France in exchange for territories in India and the

low countries a decision deeply unpopular among British colonists who had expended considerable effort in capturing the Fortress less than a decade later the most significant European War began and quickly turned into a global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763 though active hostilities began earlier in some regions such as North America the S Years War dealt with global dominance and Colonial competition on multiple continents with major theaters including Europe the Caribbean West Africa India and the Philippines in North America this was called the French and Indian War tensions began when the British attempted to build

a fort in the Ohio Valley at the time and area claimed by the French evidenced by their large Fort Ducan at the Confluence of the river as neither side was formerly at War the French warned them to cease their encroachment but a young British commander just 22 years old planned a raid and with the help of Mingo allies successfully ambushed the French scouting party including military officer janville the British commander then retreated to a newly built Fort Necessity but the French counter attacked the battle was short and low on ammunition high on liquor and heavily

outn numbered negotiations began the French stressed that all they wanted was to avenge the murder of one of their officers and also to prevent any establishment being made on the land of their King they also threatened that their native allies would soon be there and better to surrender now than risk getting scalped the British commander looked over the negotiation document and not understanding a word of French gave it to his interpreter they finally surrendered and were allowed safe passage and so this young man named George Washington would be free to change the course of history

after losing much territory following Queen Anne's War the French kept expanding Inland and had numerous forts set up in Louisiana but though their Holdings were expansive they were still very sparsely controlled and populated as new France's population was only a mere 60,000 compared to the 2 million of the British colony this meant they had to rely on many of their indigenous allies like the wabanaki Confederacy algonkin and lenar in 1755 British general Edward bradoock made his own expedition against the French Fort duain but it ended in disaster though Nova Scotia was lost to the French

the Border region between Maine and Acadia had remained disputed there had been upheaval when some Natives and acadians Rose up in resistance under the guidance of Jesuit missionaries during dummer's war and father luta's War so Britain targeted this contested region the British captured the Acadian Fort bozure which also cut off the important Fort Lewisburg from Quebec to further starve The Fortress and consolidate their dominance in the region the British forcibly removed the acadians many ended up in France or among the 13 colonies in Desperate groups many many eventually found their way back home to Acadia

but only if they swore an oath of Allegiance others made their way to Louisiana and their descendants are now called Cajun in 1756 the war became a global conflict as the Seven Years War began in Europe and spread to their colonies the French saw some promising success during these years under General manom after some strategic maneuvering he led a successful Siege of for bought Oswego in New York in 1756 the next year he led another successful capture this time at Fort William Henry 1758 marked a turning point in the war with the recent appointment of

William pit as the British Secretary of State pit increased military spending and focused on defeating France in North America while the French Crown focused more resources on the war in Europe in 1758 an exped was led into the Ohio Valley once again to finally take down Fort Duan while the French and their allies defended it against the British Advanced party they realized they didn't have the Manpower or resources to hold on to it so they chose a strategic Retreat before leaving the French destroyed Fort Duan setting fire to prevent it from falling intact into British

hands when the British main Expedition arrived they found the fort in Ruins the British claiming the Ohio Valley built a new fort fort pit which lay on the site of what would become the city of Pittsburgh in the Atlantic Theater Fort Lewisburg also fell in 1758 a major blow to the French as it was after Quebec their second biggest economic Hub it was then no surprise that the next Target would be the capital of all New France and in 1759 they launched an attack on Quebec City the British led by General James wolf defeated the

French under the Marquee deam on the plains of Abraham leading to the British capture of Quebec Montreal capitulated in 1760 and the Crux of New France vanished the war concluded with the Treaty of Paris in 1763 France seeded nearly all of its North American territories to Britain most everything east of the Mississippi including cluding Canada while Spain received Louisiana Spain which had entered the war later seeded Florida to Britain but received territories in the Philippines and Cuba from them in return the results of this war significantly reshaped the colonial landscape with Britain emerging as the

dominant colonial power in North America but Native Americans under leaders like Pontiac an Odawa war chief grew increasingly dissatisfied with the new British policies under General Jeffrey amher in 1763 a large Coalition of Native American forces led by Pontiac and others launched coordinated attacks on British Forts and settlements in the Great Lakes region Ohio Valley and the Illinois Country in May Pontiac organized a sneak raid on the British Fort Detroit originally a French Fort but it ended in stalemate the siege of Fort pit happened concurrently with the goal of driving the British from the Ohio

Valley in June 1763 during a parley at the Fort British officers knowingly gave representatives of the besieging Native Americans blankets and a handkerchief that had been used by small poox patients this event is often cited as one of the earliest examples of biological warfare it is still unclear how effective the small poox blankets were in spreading the disease as transmission rather primarily occurs through Airborne droplets while The Siege ultimately failed numerous smaller forts fell at the height of pontiac's rebellion and the British government had to issue a Royal Proclamation at the close of the French

and Indian War this set the Proclamation line a boundary set along the Appalachian Mountains forbidding settlers from encroaching West aiming to prevent further conflicts with Native Americans This caused widespread discontent among colonists especially land speculators and settlers who wanted to move Westward some settlers also felt the British government wasn't doing enough to protect them so they made their own vigilante groups the most brutal being the Paxton Boys they raided native Villages killing many civilians and those taken prisoner it was only after the intervention of Benjamin Franklin that the Paxton Boys stopped by 1764 the British

military led by officers like Colonel Henry Bay and general Thomas Gage launched counter offensives they regained control of lost territories and pursued a dual strategy of military action and diplomacy to isolate Pontiac and his allies weakened and facing dwindling support Pontiac eventually sought peace and the war ended in 1766 but it had a lasting impact on relations and the future policies of the British Empire in North America it influenced the British government's decision to keep a standing army in the colonies contributing to even more Colonial unrest this was the seed of Revolution but The Strife

in the colonies started with the British monarch so let's take a look when we last left Britain the last Monarch of the Stewart Dynasty Queen Anne presided over the union of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 but despite 17 pregnancies she died without an heir in 1714 King George I was the first Monarch of the House of Hanover an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire George was born in Northern Germany and became the British monarch due to the Protestant line of succession his Reign marked a shift towards a system where

the monarchs ministers rather than the monarch themselves played an increasing role in governance King George II son of George George I was also born in Hanover and is noted for being the last British monarch to be born outside Great Britain he was also the last to personally lead his troops into battle at the Battle of dettingen in 1743 during the war of Austrian succession King George III took the throne in 1760 and it was under his rule that some of the most significant changes occurred in the Americas policy makers in Parliament had the power to

make laws and impose taxes but those in the American colonies which had been settled for more than a century by this point were already developing their own identity with Britain reeling from the cost of the 7 years war Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765 which imposed a direct tax on the colonies for printed materials leading to widespread opposition and the famous slogan no taxation without representation it was quickly repealed after riots in 1767 the town's end acts imposed duties on imported goods such as glass paints and tea in response many colonists initiated boycotts of

British goods the first real Sparks of violence came in 1770 a confrontation between British soldiers and a group of colonists resulted in the death of five civilians this has been called the Boston Massacre and further inflamed anti-british sentiment next in 1773 the Tea Act gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies in protest a group of bostonians dumped an entire shipment of tea into Boston Harbor a year later the British Parliament responded to the Boston Tea Party by closing Boston Harbor and implementing other punitive measures called the coercive acts

which placed Massachusetts under direct Crown control to discuss their grievances against British rule and coordinate responses representatives from 12 of the 13 colonies met in Philadelphia in 1774 for the First Continental Congress tensions escalated into violence at the battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 marking the start of armed conflict these were the first military engagement of what was to be the Revolutionary War an allout war with the most powerful Empire on Earth the Second Continental Congress began meeting in 1775 and began to take on governmental roles they changed their militias into a continental

army appointed as Commander was George Washington now 20 years older his opening act in the war was The Siege of Boston where the Continental Army expelled The Garrison British before Washington's arrival the British grabbed a costly win at the Battle of Bunker Hill they quickly realized that victory in this war wasn't guaranteed and the British hired an auxiliary military of German soldiers from the Holy Roman Empire as the majority came from the German states of Hera kessle they came to be known as hessin they provided crucial support in the northern theater of the war but

the use of foreign soldiers angered many colonists fearing that the British were amassing support from the Ura and other native groups the continent Al Army began an invasion into the British held North it culminated during the last day of the year amidst a violent snowstorm at the Battle of Quebec the Americans felt their first true Taste of defeat at the hands of the British as American General Montgomery was killed and officer Benedict Arnold wounded after a protracted blockade the Americans retreated once British reinforcements arrived and the invasion was a failure on July 2nd 1776 Congress

adopted the Lee Resolution which announced a formal independence of the United Colonies from Great Britain 2 days later on July 4th the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson formerly announcing the colony's intention to separate from Britain it was based on the ideals of the Enlightenment like natural rights and remains one of the most significant documents in American history outlining the philosophical and political reasons for separation and expressing ideals of Liberty and democracy but the war continued in 1776 British commander William how launched a campaign in New York and New

Jersey the campaign began with the British for's successful landing on Staten Island following this they achieved a significant victory in the Battle of Long Island also known as the Battle of Brooklyn in August 1776 this battle was one of the largest of the war and resulted in the British capturing the city of New York after losing in Brooklyn George Washington's continental army conducted a series of strategic Retreats evacuating New York City and then New Jersey these Retreats were crucial in preserving the Army from complete destruction at the hands of the larger and better equipped British

forces in late 1776 Washington launched a counter offensive the most famous action of this period was the crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25th to 26th followed by the surprise attack and victory at the Battle of Trenton this was quickly followed by another victory at the Battle of Princeton in early January [Music] 1777 the American victories at Trenton and Princeton were pivotal in boosting the morale of the Continental Army and the American public these successes also helped Garner additional support for the American cause both domestically and abroad following these setbacks General

how Consolidated his forces in New York City and parts of New Jersey maintaining a defensive posture for the winter in the summer of 1777 how launched a campaign to capture the Continental Capital at Philadelphia the British won a significant victory at the the Battle of Brandy Wine on September 11th opening the way to Philadelphia Washington's Army then suffered another defeat at the Battle of German Town in early October Washington then retreated spending the winter at Valley Forge British troops entered Philadelphia unopposed on September 26th but most important figures had already fled the city and the

capture of the city did not have the demoralizing effect that how had hoped despite his success his poor planning prevented him from reinforcing a parallel campaign to the north which consequently failed and he resigned his post in 1778 the British now under the command of Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Philadelphia to reinforce their position in New York City the British departure from Philadelphia marked the end of the campaign the British led a parallel offensive during 1777 called the Saratoga campaign campign this campaign led by British General John bgy aimed to control the Hudson River Valley but

it ended in a decisive American victory with begoy surrender at the Battle of Saratoga in October this victory was a turning point in the war as it convinced France to enter the conflict on the side of the Americans providing crucial military and financial assistance France formerly allied with the United States in early 1778 after the setbacks in the north the British shifted their strategy to focus on the southern colonies where they believed they had more loyalist support this phase of the war included significant battles such as Savannah Charleston and Camden with initial successes for the

British despite early British victories American forces led by generals Nathaniel Green and Daniel Morgan began a successful offensive based on Guerilla Warfare culminating in key batt like Cowpens and Guilford courthouse these actions significantly weakened the British forces in the South apart from the northern and southern theaters a less disussed area of conflict was in the west here lay Illinois Country or upper Louisiana previously set up by the French but after the 7 years war east of the Mississippi was controlled by the British as part of the province of British Quebec under American General George Rogers

Clark Virginia militia French settlers called Canadien and Native allies undertook the Illinois campaign to seize upper Louisiana from the British they captured a series of towns and the important Fort Sackville at vsen adding Illinois Country as an American territory along with Ohio country American claims on this region almost doubled the entire size of the original 13 colonies in 1781 at Yorktown Virginia the British General Cornwallis surrendered to an American and French Army and the fight for America ended negotiations began and by 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed and Britain recognized America's Independence giving them

control from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River in 1787 the Constitution of the United States established a central government which was to be separate but superior to the different governments of the states to keep the central government in check it was divided into three branches itself the executive branch was headed by the president who served as the chief executive governing the military Foreign Affairs and with the power to veto and execute laws adjacent to the executive was the legislative branch composed of the Senate those elected by the state legislatures as a representative of the St

State and the House of Representatives those elected by the people the judicial branch had the power to interpret law and resolve State conflicts with the Supreme Court as the highest court in the Judiciary the Constitution itself wasn't approved by all states so by 1789 a Bill of Rights was created the Bill of Rights was a series of 10 amendments to the Constitution which focused instead on the rights of the individual rather than the right rights of government these included the freedom of speech religion and the press the right to bear arms and the right against

unreasonable searches and seizures soon all the original 13 colonies had ratified the Constitution today both are still essential components of the US system of governance and the rule of law although the Constitution was amended numerous times for Enlightenment thinkers during the 1700s though this was the first practical application of their philosophy based on natural rights and went further than the European states which still widely retained monarchy one of those States was France as Paris was one of the main hubs of the Enlightenment producing some of the most notable philosophers and thinkers was it any wonder

that an even more radical revolution was just around the corner French society as we had discussed in a previous episode was divided into three orders or Estates the estate system was separate from class as you could find numerous different classes within an estate of France's population of 27 million around 130,000 were part of the clergy the first estate despite their small size they owned around 10% of the land and were exempt from the tie the main French tax within the first estate you could find the high clergy wealthier priests who were granted prominent positions because

of their aristocratic Heritage and lower clergy like Parish priests who interacted more with the common folk the second estate was composed of about 350,000 members of the nobility they owned another 25 to 30% of the land making the first and second Estates around 2% of the population owners of around 50% of the land Nobles continue contined to hold all the prominent positions in government the courts and Military disputes between the nobility and the Monarch would become common but they were also granted certain tax exemptions like from the tie the Third Estate the commoners had to

pick up the pieces they represented the other 98% of the population and were composed of different classes the vast majority were peasants who owned around 35 to 40% of the land although most peasants had very little land and many had none though serfdom had ended peasants were still responsible for paying Nobles to use communal items in their Villages like using the local Mill the rest of the Third Estate a smaller portion was made up of Craftsmen and Artisans and the small shopkeepers who sell these wees The Peasants Crafts People and shopkeepers were hit hard in

the 1700s by the rising cost of of consumer goods also in the Third Estate was the wealthier middle class these were the industrialists bankers and large Merchants who controlled resources and the means of production this group also included the professional class like doctors and lawyers the educated and affluent middle class known as the bouris Z grew increasingly discontented with their lack of political power and privileges despite their growing economic influence they came to embrace the ideals of the Enlightenment and became highly critical of the Monarch and a system based on unmerited privilege the monarchy in

France was still an absolute one with the King holding significant power Lou V 15th the great grandson of Louis the 14th came to the throne at the age of five under Louie France engaged in several expensive Wars including the war of the Austrian succession and the Seven Years War which was particularly disastrous for France resulting in significant territorial losses and leaving the country in deep debt while there were efforts by some of the king's ministers such as turgo and mopu to introduce fiscal and judicial reforms these initiatives were often resisted by the nobility and ultimately

abandoned there were several scandals during Louis's Reign and combined with perceived mismanagement of international affairs led to the erosion of trust in the monarchy Lou the 15th was not as assertive as his more absolutist great-grandfather this resulted in a more decentralized Administration giving the provincial nobility greater influence at the expense of the centralized State during his Reign Enlightenment ideas were becoming increasingly influential philosophers criticized absolute monarchy and advocated for more representative forms of governance although these ideas were not directly Louise fault his reign coincided with this significant cultural shift economic difficulties partly resulting from war

expenditures and structural problems in the French economy were evident these issues became more pronounced during the reign of his successor but they had their Origins here apart from the somewhat difficult hand he was dealt he is still mostly criticized for his indecisiveness and for leaving France in a weakened State both financially and politically in 1775 Louis V 16th took the throne at age2 and it was clear he was no leader Marie antoanet his wife was an arch Duchess of Austria and youngest daughter of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa both Louie and Marie were still young

and neither were prepared for the economic crisis which had been building up French coffers were still drained and the monarches in insistence on a lavish lifestyle drove finances to the brink they took a significant blow to their Prestige early on as well the last king Lou V 15th had commissioned a beautiful diamond necklace to be made for his mistress at a value of 2 million leave in today's money that is over $15 million US during its construction Louie contracted small pox and died and his mistress was run out of town the new king nor his

wife Marie wanted anything to do with the expensive necklace so the Jeweler seemed stuck with it but Cardinal Lu de Roan became a central figure in the Scandal ran was out of favor with the queen having spoken offensively of her marriage and Austrian mother jandel laot an adventuress who claimed to be a friend of the queen convinced ran that she could help restore his grace with Marie soon he began receiving letters of Correspondence from the queen and as these letters became more friendly and then more warm the Cardinal was convinced she'd fallen in love with

him he asked Jan to set up a secret nighttime meeting with Marie and in August 1784 they had their meeting he offered Maria Rose and she forgave him for his past transgressions and favored him once more all the while Jean borrowed large amounts of money from the Cardinal sending them as donations for a charity run by the queen at the same time she Rose the ranks of society and rumors abounded that Jan was in fact a good personal friend to the queen hearing this the necklace Jewelers approached Shan hoping to use her to get the

queen to purchase the necklace she agreed and soon ran received another letter from the queen telling him to purchase the necklace and promising to repay him he went to the Jewelers agreed to pay the 2 million leave in installments and showed the Jewelers as the Queen's letter regarding the payments the Cardinal brought the necklace to Jean's home where a man probably the Queen's Delivery Man promptly came by and picked it up as the Cardinal had shown the Jewelers the Queen's letter they bypassed ran and beseeched the queen for payment directly there was just one problem

the queen hadn't received any necklace and had no earthly idea what they were talking about it was clear a scam was a foot an investigation was launched immediately leading to a highly publicized trial that ens snared the Cardinal Xander lamot her husband and other figures in the end it was revealed that Jan was The Mastermind behind the Scandal the letters of correspondence with the Cardinal were all forged by her accomplice to look like they were from the Queen the money she borrowed from the Cardinal never made it to any charity and was used to elevate

her own status but what about the midnight meeting with the queen Shan hired a prostitute a look alike of Marie to play the part the letter regarding the Queen's payment for the necklace was also faked and the man who came to collect it was no Delivery Man pieces of the expensive diamond necklace ended up sold on the black markets although Cardinal ran was acquitted the Scandal irreparably damaged the reputations of all involved Jan the French prostitute and the man who forged the Queen's documents were all found guilty the debacle tarnished the image of the monarchy

especially Marie antoanet who was unfairly implicated in the affair despite her innocence in the matter the Scandal fueled public perception of her as extravagant and disconnected from the common people on which the hardest burden fell as taxes were mainly paid by the peasantry there was not enough to offset debts so the monarchs needed to borrow usually there would be a central bank to borrow funds from at a low interest rate but France had no such bank so they relied on loans from private individuals by 1788 the interest on these debts was half of all governmental

spending this was unsustainable and lenders stopped lending during the second half of the century a series of bad Harvest seasons and a manufacturing depression caused High unemp employment in the urban centers and a rising cost of food the French economy was inefficient due to outdated feudal structures this hindered Agricultural and industrial production leading to poor harvests which increased food prices and led to widespread famine and unrest Louie was forced to call a special meeting of the Estates General during its early history in the medieval period the Estates General was convened more frequently it was first

summoned by Philip IV in 1302 in relation to his conflict with the Pope the last time it had been called was in 1614 it was composed of representatives from the three Estates the clergy the nobility and the commoners however disputes arose over voting procedures traditionally each estate had one Collective vote but given the Third Estate represented a vast majority of the population they demanded a vote by head frustrated by the lack of progress and feeling marginalized the Third Estate Representatives broke off on June 20th and declared themselves the National Assembly a representative body for the

entire French populace when they found their usual Meeting Hall locked they relocated to a nearby tennis court where they took an oath not to disband until they had written a constitution for France seen as a symbol of Royal tyranny the the based prison was stormed by parisians on July 14th though only a few prisoners were released the main objective was to access the stores of weapons this event is pivotal as it is generally marked as the beginning of the French Revolution the storming of the basti is celebrated annually in France as basti day amidst rumors

of an aristocratic conspiracy to suppress the revolution a wave of panic known as the great fear spread through the countryside peasants revolted against their Lords and many manners were destroyed in a dramatic session the National Assembly abolished the feudal system getting rid of the manorial rights of the nobility and clergy this was a profound change dismantling centuries old structures of privilege and inequality influenced by Enlightenment ideals and the American Declaration of Independence the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the right of man and the citizen on August 26th which asserted the equality and rights of

all citizens the deputies who sat on the left side of the Assembly Hall were generally supportive of radical changes including the establishment of a Republic and the implementation of Social and economic reforms conversely those on the right side were more conservative supporting the monarchy and the traditional social hierarchy over time these seating arrangements in the French legislative body came to symbolize broader political ideologies the left came to be associated with Progressive policies support for lower class interests and in later centuries socialism and communism the right on the other hand was linked with support for traditional

institutions like the monarchy aristocracy and the church and later became associated with capitalist economic policies and conservative values as food supply chains broke down a group of Market women began protests outside City Hall in Paris in October they made their way into the Armory and seized what weapons they could find later marching to the king's residence in versai on the way they gained many supporters and their numbers grew into the thousands once at the palace violence broke out as the mob tried to get inside with many National Guards supporting them the next day the royal

family was forced to move back to the abandoned and unkempt twery palace in Paris the National Assembly worked on drafting a new constitution for the nation in 1791 it was complete and the new constitution established a constitutional monarchy Louis V 16th was no longer an absolute monarch but instead governed with the new legislative assembly elected in 1791 it replaced the National Assembly and had the authority to create laws but while the wealthier middle classes were content with this happy medium many groups wanted the complete abolishment of the monarchy this period saw the rise of various

political clubs and factions the most notable being the Jacobin and the gerane the Jacobin were considered more radical as they wished to abolish the monarchy completely and believed in more authoritarian tactics but they had support among the lower class especially the selot the term selot literally meaning without breaches refers to their typical attire they wore long trousers instead of the knee breaches that were fashionable among the aristocracy and the bouris they were primarily composed of workingclass people including Artisans shopkeepers wage laborers and other Urban lower class individuals but would be involved in some of the

most significant events of the revolution the girane were more moderate and not opposed to the constitutional monarchy their base was more middle and upper class in an attempt to escape from the increasing radicalization of the Revolution and possibly to plot a suppression Louis the 16th and his family tried to flee Paris but they were caught in the town of Ven brought back to Paris and placed under house arrest now doubts became raised about the king's reputation and whether he was truly loyal to the new constitution the monarchy's position became increasingly precarious on August 10th 1792

a crowd stormed the t's Palace effectively ending the bourbon monarchy and after intense fighting the insurrectionists took control the Swiss guards defending the palace were massacred during the assault the development in France alarmed many of the neighboring monarchies the Declaration of pilnet issued by Emperor leopo II Marie anet's brother and King Frederick William II of Prussia threatened serious consequences if anything happened to Louis V 16th by late 1791 and early 1792 the geran pushed for war against European monarchies believing that a war would unify the nation spread revolutionary ideals and quash internal enemies in April

the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria marking the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars Prussia often Rivals with Austria soon joined their neighbors against France in a pragmatic Alliance and so began the war of the first Coalition it almost Ended as quickly as it began as a Prussian Army Advanced into France scoring a victory at the Battle of Verdon and leaving the path towards Paris clear amid rumors of an invasion and fears of the freeing of imprisoned count revolutionaries Parisian mobs massacred over a thousand inmates in prisons this came to be called the September massacres

and marked an increase in the revolution's violence but soon after at the Battle of valy there was a turning point despite being outnumbered the French army secured a pivotal Victory against the Prussian forces this success boosted French morale and allowed the Revolutionary government to consolidate its power and they wasted very little time following the fall of the monarchy the National Convention was elected one of its first acts was to officially abolish the monarchy and Proclaim France a republic on September 21st the day after valy all the stories of the kingdom of France we've covered from

Philip II's vast expansion of his realm to the miraculous Victory against the English in the 100 Years War to the unlikely Ascent of the Protestant Henry IV the first bourbon King of France all these stories are now in the past this was to be a new France the first French Republic the former King Louis V 16th was put on trial for conspiracy and high treason he was convicted by the National Convention and sentenced to death on January 21st 1793 Louis the 16th was executed by guillotine in Paris less than a year later his wife the

former Queen was executed as well the execution of Louis V 16th intensified hostilities and other European states joined the Coalition Britain alarmed by the French's advancement towards the Dutch Republic and the spread of Revolution became a key adversary primarily at Sea the British royal Navy inflicted several defeats on the French navy including the Glorious 1st of June in 1794 4 to handle the external threats from other countries and internal counterrevolutionary activities the Committee of Public Safety was established becoming the deao executive government in France after an early leadership dispute the ultr radical maximilan robes Pierre

a member of the Jacobins took the helm after a mass conscription Campaign which swelled their ranks with able-bodied men the French armies became more effective and cohesive forming the French Revolutionary Army this new Army was an Army of the people representing the French public it was a stark contrast to the Royal militaries that mainly fought for the Monarch back at home to deal with domestic problems the committee initiated a campaign to purge France of enemies of the Revolution signaling the start of a reign of terror revolutionary courts were set up to try suspected counterrevolutionaries those

found guilty were often executed by guillotine estimates suggest that between 16,000 and 40,000 people were executed during the terror the revolution took on a decisively radical character The Cult of reason and later The Cult of the Supreme Being were promoted as alternatives to Christianity which was seen by many radicals as a vestage of the old order the Revolutionary calendar was adopted which renamed months and removed Sun as a day of rest these were the new months of the year efforts were made to promote gender equality with demands for female suffrage and social rights however this

push was met with resistance even from many revolutionaries the Committee of Public Safety also enacted policies to control and stabilize the economy the law of the maximum was implemented to control prices and curb inflation efforts were made made to distribute land more equitably and feudal Jews were abolished there was a strong anti-catholic sentiment among many revolutionaries churches were desecrated clergy were forced to take an oath to the state and many symbols of Christianity were replaced or destroyed as Terror reigned in France Enlightenment ideals led to open discussions about slavery soon a French anti-slavery group called

friends of the blacks led the anti-slavery fight taking influence from the happenings in France those of the sugar colony of St deing in the west of Hispanola began fighting for their freedom this was just one of many Sugar factories run by the European powers in the Caribbean around half a million slaves worked here on around 3,000 plantations producing around 100,000 tons of sugar per year but their death rate was high because of mistreatment and deplorable conditions in August 1791 slaves revolted against their owners directly challenging the island slaveholding Colonial structure after the initial uprisings England

and Spain capitalized on the instability and invaded s deang allying with some slave factions in 1794 the French Revolutionary government officially abolished slavery in all French colonies partly a tactical decision to gain the loyalty of some slaves against Britain and Spain leaders like tucon Lucha who had been fighting with the Spanish switched allegiances to the French tucon a son of African slaves expelled the other European powers and by 1801 had control of all Hispanola though he never declared independence from France he instead named himself governor general for Life officially ending slavery on the island but

the French had reinstated slavery by 1802 and captured Tucan sending him back to France where he died in prison though the French reasserted control there was still much Guerilla Warfare in the countryside and the French resorted to mass executions of Haitians of all ages by hanging firing squads and throwing Haitians into the ocean either in bags or handcuffed French Commander General de roseno devised an even worse method of execution which he called fumigation sulfurous baths patients were loaded into the holds of ships and then sulfur dioxide was used to suffocate the men Mass Russian bow

had created the world's first gas Chambers the struggle culminated in a full-blown war of independence in 1803 by the end of the year the more radical John Jack desalene took up the fight the French decimated by Guerilla Warfare and yellow fever were defeated on January 1st 1804 desalene declared the colony's Independence renaming it Haiti or a derived from the indigenous too language later in the year he was declared Emperor Jac I the victory over the French makes Haiti still the most successful slave revolt in history the violence continued though as desalene soldiers went from house

to house killing the remaining French families in what is called the Haitian Massacre even those of mixed blood were executed only polish troops who switched sides during the war and German settlers from the north who didn't participate in the slave trade were spared and given the status of Noir or black back in France by mid 1794 many including members of the convention grew weary of the Extreme Measures and the constant threat of the guillotine factions within the Jacobin movement began to turn on each other on the ninth Thermidor in year 2 according to the Revolutionary

calendar or the 27th of July 1794 robes Pierre and his Close Associates were arrested the next day robes Pierre and many others were executed by guillotine signaling the end of the reign of terror this push back was called the thermidorian reaction where more moderate elements took the Reigns The thermidorian named after the month where the radicals fell were a loose Coalition of moderate and conservative factions in the convention they moved quickly to dismantle many of the policies and institutions associated with the Jacobin regime the Jacobin Club was closed and many local Jacobin clubs throughout France

were attacked or shuttered with the fall of the Jacobins the bouris which had been sidelined during the reign of terror regain gained much of its influence they pushed for policies that protected property rights and trade the law of the maximum which had imposed price controls during the reign of terror was abolished this led to Rapid inflation and economic hardship for many but it was a clear move away from the economic controls of the previous regime in a reverse of the reign of terrorist purges there was a wave of violent reactions against perceived Jacobins and supporters

of the radical phase of the Revolution this period of Retribution often referred to as the white Terror varied in intensity across the country but involved arrests lynchings and other forms of violence against perceived radicals in 1795 a new constitution known as the constitution of the Year 3 was adopted it established the directory as the new executive Authority marking the beginning of the next phase of the revolution but with the more extreme revolutionaries out of the picture the Hardline conservatives emerged once again discontent among royalists grew as the convention prepared to hand over power to the

directory many royalists saw this as an opportunity to finally restore the monarchy on the 13th Fier a large group of royalist insurgents mobilized in Paris intending to march on the National Convention their goal was to overthrow the convention and hold the establishment of the directory Paul barah then head of the convention's military appointed a 26-year-old to defend the convention demonstrating his military Acumen this young strategist strategically positioned his cannons and troops to confront the insurgents his forces fired on the advancing royalist crowd effectively dispersing them this decisive action resulted in a significant but uncertain number

of casualties and effectively ended the RO royalist threat to the convention the success in quelling the Insurrection catapulted this young man named Napoleon to prominence his military Effectiveness caught the attention of the government leaders but who was this talented young man descended from minor Italian nobility Napoleon bonapart was born on Corsica in 1769 just after genua transferred the island to France making him a French citizen by mere months Napoleon was able to study at the top schools in France learning the language from a young age and enrolling in military school changing his first name to

a more French sounding one but he was never truly accepted because of his strong Corsican accent and was constantly bullied during his youth this drove him to a more solitary life of reading and educating himself and he developed a keen understanding of mathematics especially geometry this gave him a greater understanding of spatial reasoning and calculating the route and ranges of artillery fire contributing to his success in suppressing the royalists and carried on to the rest of his military career the first glimpse of his tactical genius wasn't during a time of War but during a light-hearted

snowball fight at the Academy where he led his team to defeat a group of older students commissioned as a leftenant in 1785 he spent this time reading the works of the philosop like r so and studied the military campaigns and strategies of the greatest European military leaders of the past like Alexander the Great whose story you can check out in our ancient Greece documentary Charlamagne in our Middle Ages video and Frederick the great from this very video he made a name for himself early on at the siege of tulon one of the earliest battles during

the war of the first Coalition in 1794 well into the revolution Napoleon was made Brigadier General by the Committee of Public Safety and now he was making quite the name for himself working for the directory the quelling of the royalist Insurrection paved the way for the inauguration of the directory which took control of the French government under the new constitution the directory was designed with checks and balances to prevent any single group from Gaining too much power a direct response to the perceived autocracy of the Committee of Public Safety under robes Pier this government consisted

of a five- member executive directory and two legislative houses the Council of ancients the upper house and the Council of 500 the lower the directory faced internal political struggles and lacked widespread support it was frequently at odds with the legislative councils and struggled to find a balance between the royalists and the extreme radicals despite efforts to stabilize the French economy the D directory still faced the ongoing financial crisis with inflation food shortages and economic disparities continuing to plague France even so the directory was Notorious for its corruption and inefficiency many of its members and Associates

were known to engage in bribery embezzlement and other forms of corruption while the directory struggled domestically it relied heavily on the military to maintain order and expand fr revolutionary ideals abroad continuing the wars against the European Coalition outside of France the French Revolutionary Army continued their Advance into the Austrian Netherlands in what was called the Flanders campaign their most significant victory was the Battle of fluru in 1794 where the French under General Jerdan defeated the austrians this battle is noted for the use of a reconnaissance balloon marking one of the the first military uses of

a type of aircraft the French victories led to the full annexation of the Austrian Netherlands they spread revolutionary ideas claiming to liberate the lands they invaded and abolished feudalism a number of sister republics were established in conquered areas independent states that swore allegiance to France the first of these was The Batavian Republic established by revolutionaries in the Dutch Republic by 1795 weariness and political changes LED some Coalition members to seek peace of the major players it was first Prussia in 1795 that made peace in order to deal with issues in the East Spain was next

and would later even join France all that was left of the Coalition was Britain and Austria but Britain was more concerned with Naval Combat blockades and their strikes on European colonies in Africa the Caribbean an Indian Ocean with only Austria left the French went on the offensive the plan was a two-pronged attack one from the north and one from Italy Napoleon was given command of the French army in the South there he met an army of demoralized and untrustworthy soldiers but he made the most of it and got to work immediately after Gathering the necessary

intelligence Napoleon had his route his army marched into Northern Italy separating the Austrian Army from their allies in the Kingdom of Sardinia they were then able to divide and conquer first focusing on the habsburg's Italian allies after the victories at montena millesimo and movi Napoleon forced the kingdom of Sardinia pedman to sign the Armistice of Chasco in April 1796 the subsequent Treaty of Paris signed in May took Sardinia pedant out of the war and seized Ed significant territories to France like n and seavoy Napoleon then turned his attention to the Austrian forces after a victory

at the Battle of loodi he was clear to capture Milan the capital of Lombardi he then set his sight on manua the key Austrian Fortress in Northern Italy as he lay Siege to the fortification the Austrian sent relief forces several different times and each time Napoleon repelled them one of these was the Battle of castillion in August where Napoleon decisively defeated the austrians after this battle French forces continued to advance posing a significant threat to the Papal States as a result of this pressure Pope Pas the sixth sought a peace agreement with the French they

seeded several territories to France and also surrendered a large part of their Treasury and a number of artworks and manuscripts after 8 months manua finally capitulated and Austria's power in Italy was all but vanished wasting no time the general then Advanced towards Vienna the Austrian Capital itself when he was just 100 Mil from the city the austrians called it quits the Treaty of Campo formo in 1797 ended the war with Austria seeding control of the Austrian Netherlands and recognizing the French annexations in the Rin land the Republic of Venice which had been an independent state

for over a thousand years lost its independence and was handed over to Austria ending its long-standing status as a sovereign Republic the first Coalition dissolved as only Britain remained though the broader war was over the French pressed their advantage and continued expansion a French backed coup in Switzerland brought them into the French sphere as a sister State called the helvetic Republic in 1798 an invasion was launched into the Papal States and a French army marched into Rome the pope was taken prisoner and the Eternal city became another client State called the Roman Republic as France

and Britain were still forly at War Napoleon sought a direct Invasion but the British Navy and defenses were far too robust so it was instead suggested to form a colony in the rich lands of Egypt it could bolster French interests and be used as a base to hamper the British in India and the Mediterranean Napoleon and his army set sail in May British agents caught wind of this and a fleet under Admiral Horatio Nelson was sent to intercept the French navy they reportedly passed just 20 mi from each other but thick fog protected the French

vessels and Napoleon lived to fight another day their first stop was Malta where they prom promptly captured the island from the knights hospitala a military order formed during the Crusades and who had control of the island for over 260 years the next stop though was Egypt Egypt by this point was still part of the Ottoman Empire a story you can check out here but the mamlock cast had gained more power over time and held Egypt under military rule Napoleon first captured Alexandria but the gleaming city was no no longer the most important political Center so

he made a long and arduous March towards Cairo on the way at the Battle of the pyramids the French thoroughly defeated the mamlock armies and marched into Cairo but it was still too early to celebrate Admiral Nelson and the British royal Navy finally caught up to the French ships and after the battle of the Nile the French Flagship exploded and surrendered Napoleon still deeper Inland in Cairo was effectively now stranded in Egypt to further complicate matters the Ottomans declared war and sent an army to advance down from the Levant Napoleon still had his genius or

arrogance and chose to go out and intercept them the French armies passed through Gaza and laid Siege to Jaffa because of some reported dishonesty by the Ottomans the French executed the entire Garrison with bayonets to conserve ammunition but almost like divine retribution the French army was hit by plague his last attempt was at the siege of AA a heavily defended Fortress but due to help from the British the Ottomans held off Napoleon a defeat he held close to his heart for the rest of his life he would later lament if only AA had fallen I

would have changed the face of the world a defeated French army had to retreat back to Egypt facing more hardships and disease along the way reaching their destination they won a final battle at abuka allowing them to receive troubling news a second Coalition had already formed against them and the start of a second war Britain was of course still part of it but a new state would enter the Empire of Russia had remained neutral during the first war but Emperor John I was an admirer of the Knights of St John and vowed revenge for aoon

subjugation of the order in Malta a furious Austria also joined the Ottomans already at War had to join and soon after Portugal and the kingdom of Naples Prussia remained neutral while Spain was an ally of France the war itself began when Naples invaded the Roman Republic and the austrians achieved numerous victories in the Rhineland pushing back the French a Russian and Austrian arm Army under Alexander sov also reclaimed much of Northern Italy the directory resorted to an unpopular policy of mass conscription once again causing significant push back still stuck in the Middle East and impossible

to return home with his army Napoleon left them in Egypt he set sail with only his personal retinue and numerous academics who held some magnificent discoveries like the Rosetta Stone the key to translating the ancient Egyptian written language with the directory's popularity waning and the country facing ongoing domestic crisis the stage was set for change once back in France with the backing of other key military figures and politicians Napoleon orchestrated the coup of the 18th Brew the directory was dissolved and in its place the consulate was established with Napoleon as first Consul marking the end

of the French Revolution and the beginning of napole Napoleon's rise to ultimate power this constitution confirmed Napoleon's position as first Consul and granted him significant Powers two other consuls of differing political alignments ruled alongside Napoleon but they were just extensions of his will Napoleon's first move was to reestablish links to one of the most prominent enemies of the Revolution the Catholic church in 1801 he met with the Pope and offered to recognize Catholicism as the French religion in exchange for the church agreeing to let go of the lands confiscated from them during the revolution with

this the church and government were no longer enemies and those who gained land during the revolution were allowed to keep it giving Napoleon a strong support base he introduced reforms in administration and legal systems with the Napoleonic Code this civil code was based on the equality of all citizens before the law property rights and recognized the abolition of the older systems of feudalism and serfdom it was partially inspired by the 6th Century law code of Justinian which we've mentioned in our episode on the Eastern Roman Empire some newer laws which had been implemented during the

radical phase of the Revolution were reversed like the ease for a wife to obtain a divorce and their property rights but he also shut down the majority of newspapers and only allowed writting that met government approval private mail was even opened and checked over under Napoleon's leadership the French counterattacked with a series of successful campaigns pushing back the Coalition forces this is when Napolean famously crossed the Alps in order to repel Coalition forces in Italy a Tre that has been immortalized in numerous paintings but his journey probably looked less like this and more like this

notable victories included the Battle of moringo in Italy and the Battle of hoen Linden in Bavaria the war with Austria concluded with the Treaty of lunaville reaffirming the territorial changes agreed upon in the last treaty this effectively ended Austrian participation in the war by 1802 the British followed and the Treaty of Aman was signed marking the end of the Revolutionary Wars by a pleit Napoleon's term as first conso was extended for Life further consolidating his hold on power but Britain now the United Kingdom felt threatened by its Rivals growing position in Europe and in 1803

declared war on France the start of over a decade of Napoleonic Wars while the French Revolutionary wars were more about the dreams of a revolutionary State against the traditional monarchies of Europe the Napoleonic War centered around the dreams of a powerful ful leader with imperialistic ambition once it was clear Haiti was lost Napoleon gave up on the Americas instead focusing on expansion in Europe in 1803 he even sold the large french colony of Louisiana to the United States a colony it had lost after the 7 years war but regained from the Spanish in 1801 the

political climate in France was still unstable with ongoing threats from royalist factions and political unrest but Napoleon enjoyed considerable popularity in France due to his military successes and demestic reforms in 1804 with the people's support his next move was to become emperor of France the ceremony was held at notredame Cathedral in Paris headed by the pope hearkening back to the days of Charlamagne but to avoid the power struggle between church and state instead of being crowned by the pope Napoleon and crowned himself he then crowned his wife Josephine he wanted it to be known that

his power came not from a Divine Source but from himself and the people of France but in so doing it meant the fall of the French Republic and the birth of the Empire as France and Spain remained allies they assembled a fearsome Navy and threatened British possessions in the Caribbean as a distraction from a planned Invasion into Britain itself but British Naval dominance was confirmed at the Battle of tfala in 1805 though Admiral Nelson was outnumbered the Royal Navy managed to outmaneuver the Franco Spanish Fleet and win the battle though Nelson himself didn't survive his

groundbreaking tactic cemented the UK's crucial hold over the seas with the win another Coalition was formed with Austria Russia and Sweden the war of the third Coalition was underway Prussia again remained neutral by this time Napoleon had reorganized those Italian territories under his influence creating the Kingdom of Italy in the north he crowned himself king of Italy in the Milan Cathedral and placed the kingdom in his personal Union Bavaria an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire also allied with France and was invaded by the austrians so the grand arme marched East once again they outflanked

the austrians during the Alm campaign and decimated the Austrian armies soon after Napoleon and the grand arm was in Vienna itself the Habsburg Capital the remaining Austrian forces and the Imperial Russian army were then lured into a trap and faced their greatest defeat at the Battle of ellites Napoleon's tactical Acumen at this battle had ranked him among the greatest of all time like Alexander the Great Hannibal and and Julius Caesar the Peace of pressberg finally brought an end to the war with Austria this was to be their third treaty signed with France during these wars

after being on the losing side in three straight coalitions the French also launched a lesser known side campaign into the kingdom of Naples part of the Coalition the king fled to neighboring Sicily and the French appointed their own King in southern Italy with these wins Napoleon secured most of Continental Europe Austria gave up Venice and the near Millennium long Holy Roman Empire forly dissolved The Last Emperor Francis II abdicated the title and focused on his Habsburg domains in the East the Austrian Empire many former German states of the old Holy Roman Empire were then reorganized

into larger entities and Consolidated into another of Napoleon's client states the confederation of the Ry now surrounded by French client states Prussia was threatened and declared war this marked the beginning of the war of the fourth Coalition though the United Kingdom and Russia had still formerly been at war with France the fourth Coalition was headed mainly by Prussia and Russia the Prussian Army under Frederick William III was still one of the best in Europe and finally Napoleon might meet firm resistance but the grand arm was was well- drilled highly disciplined and now quite experienced the

French cor system allowed for greater flexibility and Rapid movement which was a stark contrast to the more rigid Prussian formations of the time Napoleon's forces moved quickly and managed to surprise the Prussian Army this Victory along with a simultaneous and just as impressive victory at oret marked the rapid decline of Prussian military power and soon Napoleon captured the Prussian capital of Berlin after marching East to the Russian Frontier Napoleon scored yet another victory at the Battle of fredland and Russia asked for peace with the Treaty of tilid Russia became the last peace in Napoleon's Grand

Design This was called the Continental System Europe was now dominated by client states states directly governed by Napoleon or his family or states of the continent Al system the purpose of this system was a complete and total Embargo of the United Kingdom this could theoretically work if properly enforced and every state on the shoreline complied Sweden allies of Britain remained out of France's grasp so in 1808 Russia sent in an army to force them to comply with the system the start of the Finnish War the Russians won annexing Swedish Finland and what became the grand

Grand duy of Finland precursor to the modern Finnish State Portugal which remained neutral still traded with the UK a French army was quickly dispatched to force them to join the system with Allied Spain's approval and a secret pack to partition Portugal the Army marched straight through and into Lisbon the Portuguese Capital as the royal family fled to Brazil but as the French moved through the Iberian Peninsula they decided to occupy Madrid in 1808 leading to Violent riots after Napoleon suppressed the riots he installed his own brother as king these were the beginnings of the peninsul

war this war was quite different than those against the coalitions and dragged on crippling the French financially Spaniards fiercely resisted French rule keeping them at Bay for years but more than their tactics this was a fight for independence and became one of the deadliest Wars in Spanish history it was marked by brutal Guerilla Warfare and significant British involvement under Sir Arthur Welsley the later Duke of Wellington the war also significantly eroded support for Napoleon and weakened his forces as the peninsula war was going on deeper in Europe an old enemy would rear its beaten head

after 4 years of Peace in 1809 Austria joined up with the UK to create the fifth Coalition eager to reclaim the lands they'd lost the austrians revitalized their military and invaded Bavaria one of Napoleon's strongest allies while the peninsula War continued Napoleon raced back East to counter the austrians continuing past Vienna he had to cross the duub to meet the rest of the Habsburg Army under Arch duuk Charles but the austrians gave them no respit and attacked before Napoleon's reinforcements could cross the river over 2 Days in the nearby Villages of asper and esling the

two armies fought desperately especially the austrians the French army suffered the loss of several key commanders during the battle including Marshall John Lan a highly skilled and respected leader which impacted morale and Effectiveness and they were driven back across the river the Strategic move gave the austrians their first win against Napoleon in a decade the victory was so shocking that the austrians couldn't even capitalize on it Napoleon had to retreat from Vienna and it seemed the first domino in French dominance had fallen but in reality the French Emperor learned from his mistakes and a rematch

occurred just 6 weeks later it was one of the bloodiest battles in Europe up until that point with massive artillery cutting through opposing armies on vast expanses of flat fields though casualties were high for both sides Napoleon came out the Victor and Austria surrendered once again seeding large portions of territory amounting to a fifth of its population Napoleon now divorced from his first wife who had not produced him an heir sealed the treaty with a marriage to the Austrian Emperor's daughter in 1810 Marie Louise by 1811 she had given him his son one of the

French client State set up by Napoleon was the duy of Warsaw taken from lands he had won from both Prussia and Austria the Russians were wary that this was an attempt to revive a Polish state a threat to Emperor Alexander and the aristocracy even more important was that Russia's economy was still agrarian so they relied on outside trade their biggest trading partner had been the United Kingdom but they were now forbidden to trade with them due to the Continental System Russia's economy crashed and Alexander left the system the short peace between France and Russia was

to end as quickly as it began in 1812 Napoleon began amassing forces from all across his domains in Europe for an invasion into Russia reaching 600,000 in number they gathered on the Neiman River ready to cross into Russia Napoleon wasn't trying to conquer Russia just show enough might for Emperor Alexander to recom to the continental system as the grand arm crossed the river into Russia in June they Advanced expecting a major battle but Russian forces kept retreating deeper and deeper into their expansive Empire scorching the Earth along the way outside Moscow the Russians mounted their

first real defense at the Battle of bodino though Napolean achieved a narrow Victory both armies lost countless soldiers and it became the bloodiest single day of the Napoleonic Wars the grand arm then occupied Moscow but found it deserted and set Ablaze Napoleon waited here for weeks expecting an offer of submission and peace but it never came during this time the snow began to fall and Napoleon finally retreated as November came around temperatures dropped to - 30° C soldiers froze to death and morale was at an all-time low as they passed the old bodino Battlefield with

its countless corpses still on the snowy ground along the way they were constantly harassed by dispersed Russian peasants and irregular troops after a final battle at the berzen river the remnant of the grand arm made it out of Russia of the 600,000 men who entered half a million were either killed or captured of the 100,000 who remained more than half were permanently injured and more unfit for battle Napoleon's invasion of Russia has been considered one of the biggest blunders in military history but more than the loss of his men and artillery it was the loss

of his reputation that truly marked a turning point hearing of the decimation of the grand arm the powers of Europe formed yet another Coalition this time of all the states that had previously fought the French Emperor Russia Austria Prussia and several German states banded together in the East while the United Kingdom Spain and Portugal continued the peninsula war in the west to regain lost troops Napoleon reimposed the unpopular Mass conscription policy and in just a few months had an army of around 400,000 though Napoleon did win another series of battles marching East the last being

at Dron his army of 400,000 dropped to below half of that this is when the French met their great greatest challenge a fresh Coalition Army led by the austrians Russians and prussians with the aid of Sweden and German states that defected this battle of leig resulted in over 130,000 casualties the most Europe had ever seen in a single battle the battle became known as the Battle of Nations and Napoleon unable to withstand the onslaught of so many enemies withdrew to France but the Coalition was close behind dissolving the confederation of the Ry they had offered

Napoleon terms of Peace allowing him to remain Emperor and relinquish his territories to the Natural French borders but Napoleon ignored the offer by this time the British Spanish and Portuguese armies had defeated the French at the Battle of Victoria in the peninsula war and made their way up to France from the south while Austria Prussia and Russia crossed the Rind from the north despite Napoleon fighting back and pushing back significantly larger forces during his 6- days campaign the Coalition entered the French capital in March winning the decisive battle of Paris a few days later Napoleon

was deposed and his officers mutinied by April the hostilities ended on the continent with the Treaty of Fontaine Blue the terms of the treaty were lenient exiling Napoleon to the island of Elba off the coast of Italy and pushing France back to its 1792 borders the Bourbons were restored under a constitutional monarchy and by May France and the UK made peace and so ended The Saga of the genius General who almost conquered all of Europe or so it seemed from Elba Napoleon kept up with the going on in France the restored monarchy under Louis VI

18th was soon at odds with the populace in a series of unpopular decision decisions the famous tricolor flag of the First Republic was replaced with that of the Bourbons salaries were cut from Military Officers and much of the aristocracy returned to France to reclaim the land they lost during the revolution in February 185 sensing the disillusionment Napoleon and a small contingent snuck off the island and made their way back to France as Napoleon neared Paris troops sent to arrest him instead joined his cause he entered Paris in March 1815 forcing Louis VI 18th to flee

marking the start of the 100 days though Napoleon introduced moderate reforms his return alarmed the other European powers the main powers Austria Prussia Russia and the United Kingdom banded together one last time the war of the seventh Coalition the Allied Forces began assembling just outside the French borders but Napoleon wasted no time an attack before the Russian or Austrian armies could arrive the French then divided the British and Prussian armies at two separate battles but the Prussian forces though having retreated had reinforcements on the way and the battle against the British remained indecisive it was

soon after in June 1815 that Napoleon faced the British near a small village called watero the Army was headed by the Duke of Wellington and included armies from the UK the Netherlands and smaller German states the battle began early in the morning with French attacks on the Allied line Wellington's troops held their positions against repeated French assaults Napoleon delayed the major assault on the center of Wellington's line waiting for the ground to dry after the previous night's heavy rain in the late afternoon Napoleon launched a massive attack with his Imperial Guard a prestigious unit that

had rarely been defeated however the British foot guard stood firm repulsing this attack the combined pressure from British and Prussian forces eventually broke the French's morale and their army was routed the defeat at watero ended Napoleon's rule as Emperor and marked the final chapter in the Napoleonic Wars Napoleon returned to Paris and abdicated a few days later in favor of his infant son Napoleon II he then tried to flee to America but was captured Louis VI 18th returned and the monarchy once again was restored the second Treaty of Paris was signed with much harsher penalties

France was ordered to pay 700 million Franks in indemnities and France was reduced further to its 1790 borders parts of France were also to be occupied by Foreign soldiers for 5 years to restore the balance of power the major European States held a series of diplomatic meetings at the Congress of Vienna restoring and redrawing the European borders to prevent any more instability we will be discussing this new Europe in our next Mega documentary so be sure to subscribe Napoleon was subsequently exiled to St Helena a remote island in the South Atlantic much further from Europe

than Elba the decision to keep him alive prevented his being seen as a martyr and European Powers didn't want to set the precedent of executing monarchs there in lonely isolation far from the country he loved and transformed Napoleon spent his last years and died just 6 years later in 1821 no more as emperor of a great nation but emperor of a tiny Island as we bid farewell to the early modern period a time of exploration and Enlightenment we enter a world that is quite transformed the end of the early modern remains unrecognizable to the end

of the Medieval Age just 300 years prior yet history never stops and as we look ahead to the next period we are poised to witness a transformation even more profound than the last join us as we embark on a journey through this transformative Epoch all across the Earth where the rapid pace of change paves the way to the world as we know it today